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(번역) susan sontag 수잔손탁 평가A+최고예요

Contents1. 최종번역본2. 번역초안3. 주요 문제 및 자체평가최종번역본여성의 아름다움 : 굴욕이냐 권력이냐수잔 손택고대 그리스 인들에게 미는 미덕, 즉 일종의 우월성이었다. 당시의 사람들은, 요즘의 우리가 불완전하게, 부럽게 여기는, 소위 완벽한 인간이었다. 행여 개인의 "내면"과 "외면"을 구분해야 할 필요가 있을 때에도, 그리스 사람들은 여전히 내면의 아름다움이 다른 종류의 아름다움과 서로 어우러질 것이라 기대했다. 그래서 소크라테스의 주변에 모여든 아테네의 귀족 청년들은 그들이 추앙하는 스승이 그토록 지성적이고, 용맹스럽고, 존경스럽고, 고혹적임과 동시에 그토록 추한 외모를 지녔다는 사실이 매우 모순된다고 생각했다. 소크라테스의 주된 교수법 중에 추해지라는 것도 포함되어 있어, 순진하고, 훌륭한 외모를 가진 그의 제자들에게 세상의 삶이 실제로 얼마나 모순적인 요소들로 가득한 지를 가르치기도 했다.제자들은 소크라테스의 가르침에 반발했을지도 모르겠다. 하지만 우리는 아니다. 수천 년이 지난 지금, 우리는 아름다움이 주는 매력을 좀 더 경계한다. 우리는 아주 쉽게 내면"(성격, 지성)과 "외면"(외모)을 나누어 생각할 뿐만 아니라 아름다운 사람이 지적이고, 재능 있고, 착하면 실제로 깜짝 놀라기까지 한다.미가 인간의 우수성에 대한 고전적인 사상 속에서 차지했던 핵심적인 위치를 박탈당한 데에는 기독교의 영향이 컸다. 우수성(라틴어로는 virtue)을 오직 도덕적 가치에 국한시킴으로써, 기독교는 아름다움을 이질적이고 주관적이고 피상적인 개념으로 전락시켜버렸다. 그리고 지금껏 미의 명성은 추락을 거듭해왔다. 거의 이백년 동안 습관적으로 우리는 미를 두 개의 성 중 하나에만 부여했다. 비록 아름답기는 하나 항상 부차적으로 여겨지는 성에 말이다. 아름다움을 여성과 결부시킴으로써 미는 사실상 수세에 몰리게 되었다.우리는 영어로 아름다운(Beautiful) 여인이라고 하고 잘생긴(Handsome) 남성이라고 말한다. "잘생겼다는 것"은, 지금껏 여성들에게 국한되어 다분히 부차적으로만 그러하다고 여겨진다.) 이러한 고정 관념에 비추어본다면, 아름다움은 기껏해야 좋은 뜻과 나쁜 뜻이 다소 뒤섞인 평판을 받은 것임에 틀림없다.물론 잘못된 것은 아름다워지고자 하는 욕망이 아니라, 그것을 위한 의무감과 노력이다. 대부분의 여성들이 자신들의 성에 대한 달콤한 찬사로 받아들이는 것은, 실제로는 스스로를 자신의 실제 존재 또는 미래의 존재까지도 보다 열등하게 느끼도록 만드는 책략이다. 이상적인 아름다움이란 항상 자기 억압의 형태로 관리되기 때문이다. 여성들은 자신의 몸을 부분적으로 보고, 각 부분을 평가하도록 교육 받는다. 가슴, 발, 엉덩이, 허리사이즈, 목, 눈, 코, 살결, 머리카락 등등. 그리고 이 각각의 부위는 검열에 통과하기 위해 매번 불안과 초조함과 때로는 절망적인 관리를 거쳐야 한다. 하지만 일부가 검열에 통과한다 해도 부족한 것은 있게 마련이다. 완벽하지 않으면 아무런 소용이 없는 것이다.남성에게 좋은 외모란 전체적으로 한 눈에 판단이 가능한 외모이다. 신체의 서로 다른 각 부위에 치수까지 따져가며 확인할 필요는 없으며, 아무도 그의 외모를 꼼꼼하게 특징별로 따져서 평가하자고 하지 않는다. 완벽성 역시 남자의 경우 사소한 문제이며 오히려 남자답지 못한 것으로 간주된다. 실제로 이상적으로 잘생긴 외모의 남자에게 조그마한 흠이 있다면 그것은 오히려 매우 긍정적이고 바람직한 것으로 여겨지기도 한다. 스스로를 로버트 레드포드 팬이라고 말한 여성 영화평론가에 따르면, 레드포드를 단순한 "꽃미남" 이상으로 만든 것은 바로 한쪽 뺨에 난 살색 사마귀들이다. 이 평가 속에 숨은, 여성에 대한, 그리고 아름다움에 대한 모독에 대해 생각해보라.콕토는 "아름다움의 특권은 무한하다"고 했다. 분명히 미는 일종의 권력이며 당연히 그래야 한다. 그러나 통탄할 일은 그것이 대부분의 여성들이 추구하도록 권장 받는 유일한 권력이 되고 있다는 점이다. 이 권력은 항상 남성과의 관계 속에서만 유효하다. 행동하는 권력이 아니라 유혹하는 권력이기 때문이다인' 존재라고 폄하하는 것(혹은 숭배할 만하다고 찾는 것)보다 더 쉬운 출발이 어디 있겠는가? 이것은 조잡한 덫이고 너무나 오랫동안 효력을 발휘해왔다. 그 덫에서 벗어나기 위해 여성은 미라는 이름의 우월성과 특권으로부터 비판적인 거리를 유지해야 한다. "여성스러움"의 허상을 유지하기 위해, 미의 본질이 얼마나 축소되었는지를 충분한 거리를 두고 볼 수 있어야 한다. 여성으로부터, 그리고 여성들을 위해 미를 구해낼 방법이 반드시 있을 것이다번역초안고대 그리스 인들에게 미는 미덕, 즉 일종의 우월성(빼어남)이었다. 당시의 사람들은, 요즘의 우리가 불완전하게, 부럽게 여기는, 소위 완벽한 인간으로 간주되었다.(인간이었다.) 행여 개인의 “내면”과 “외면”을 구분해야 할 필요가 있을 때에도, 그리스 사람들은 여전히 내면의 아름다움이 다른 종류의 아름다움과 어우러질 것이라 기대했다. (서로 맞아야 한다고 생각했다.) 그래서 소크라테스의 주변에 모여든 아테네의 귀족 청년들은 그들이 추앙하는 스승이 그토록(너무나) 지성적이고, 용맹스럽고, 존경스럽고, 또 고혹적이면서도 동시에 그토록(너무나) 추한 외모를 지녔다는 사실이 매우 모순된다고(불합리하다고) 생각했다. 소크라테스의 주된 교수법 중에 추해지라는 것도 포함되어 있어, 순진하고 너무나도 잘생긴 그의 제자들에게 세상의 삶이라는 것이 실제로 얼마나 모순적인 요소들로 가득한 지를 가르치기도 했다.제자들은 소크라테스의 가르침에 반발했을지도 모르겠다. 하지만(그러나) 우리는 아니다. 수천 년이 지난 지금, 우리는 아름다움이 주는 매력에 좀 더 신중을 기한다.(매력을 경계한다) 우리는 아주 쉽게 "내면"(성격, 지성)과 "외면"(외모)을 나누어 생각할 뿐만 아니라 아름다운 사람이 지적이고, 재능 있고, 착하기까지 하면 깜짝 놀라기까지 한다. (아름다우면서도 동시에 지적이고 재능이 있고 훌륭한 사람을 보면 실제로 매우 놀라움을 표시한다.)인간의 우수성에 대한 고전적인 사상 속에서 핵심적인 위치를 차지했던 미가 제거된 것은 주로 기독교지닌다.아름답다고 불리는 것은 여자들이 지닌 성격과 관심에 대한 본질을 지칭한다. (강하고, 능률적이고 자신만만한 것이 본질인 남성과는 대조적이다) 여성들이 아름다움에 관심을 갖도록 가르치는 방식이 나르시시즘을 부추기고 의존성과 미숙함을 더욱 강조한다는 점을 인식하기 위해 반드시 고도의 페미니즘 적 인식을 가진 사람이어야 할 필요는 없다. 그 정도는 누구나(남자든 여자든) 다 알고 있다. 왜냐하면 여성적이라는 말을 자신의 외모를 걱정한다는 개념과 동의어로 만든 것이야말로, “만인”이자 사회 일반이기 때문이다. (반면에 남성적이라는 말은 자신의 존재와 활동에 전념한다는 개념이며, 외모에 신경 쓴다고 해도 다분히 부차적으로만 그러하다고 여겨진다.) 이러한 고정 관념에 비추어본다면, 아름다움이 기껏해야 좋은 뜻과 나쁜 뜻이 다소 뒤섞인 평판을 즐긴 것은(받은 것은) 당연하다.물론 잘못된 것은 아름다워지고자 하는 욕망이 아니라, 그것을 위한 의무감과 노력이다. 대부분의 여성들이 자신들의 성에 대한 달콤한 찬사로 받아들이는 것은, 실제로는 스스로를 자신의 실제 존재 또는 미래의 존재까지도 보다 열등하게 느끼도록 만드는 책략이다. 이상적인 아름다움이란 항상 자기 억압의 형태로 관리되기 때문이다. 여성들은 자신의 몸을 부분적으로 보고, 각 부분을 평가하도록 교육 받는다. 가슴, 발, 엉덩이, 허리사이즈, 목, 눈, 코, 살결(표정), 머리카락 등등. 그리고 이 각각의 부위는 검열에 통과하기 위해 매번 불안과 초조함과 때로는 절망적인 관리를 거쳐야 한다. 하지만 일부가 검열에 통과한다 해도 부족한 것은 있게 마련이다. 완벽하지 않으면 아무런 소용이 없는 것이다.남성에게 좋은 외모란 전체적으로 한 눈에 판단이 가능한 것이다. 신체의 서로 다른 각 부위에 치수까지 따져가며 확인하지 않으며 그의 외모를 꼼꼼하게 특징별로 따져서 평가하자고 하는 사람은 아무도 없다. 완벽성 역시 남자의 경우 사소한 문제이며 오히려 남자답지 않은 것으로 치부한다. 완벽함을 위해, 완벽성에 관한 한, 이다. 이 권력은 항상 남성과의 관계 속에서만 유효하다. 행동하는 권력이 아니라 유혹하는 권력이기 때문이다. 그것은 스스로를 부정하는 권력이기도 하다. 이 권력은 여성에 의해 자유롭게 선택될 수도, 사회의 비난 없이 거부될 수도 없는 권력이기 때문이다.여성에게, 외모를 단장하는 것이 그냥 단순한 즐거움일 수만은 없다. 그것은 의무이자 노동이다. 만일 여성이 실제 일다운 일을 하더라도, 즉 정치, 법, 의학, 사업 등에서 지도층에 올라있더라도, 그녀는 여전히 매력적으로 보이기 위해 노력하고 있다고 고백하도록 압력을 받는다. 하지만 그녀가 아름다운 성의 일원으로 남으려 하는 한, 그녀의 객관적이고, 전문적이고, 권위적이고, 사려 깊은 능력은 당장 의심을 받게 될 것이다. 여성은 외모에 신경을 써도 그 때문에 매도를 당하고 신경을 쓰지 않아도 그로 인해 매도를 당하게 된다.개인을 소위 “내면”과 “외면”의 분열된 자아로 판단하는 위험에 대한 가장 중요한 증거는 웃지도 울지도 못할, 여성의 억압에 대한 끝없이 긴 이야기이다. (한없이 길고 웃지도 울지도 못할, 여성의 억압에 대한 이야기이다.)여성을 자신들의 외양만을 관리하는 사람으로 규정한 다음, 그들을 ‘피상적인’ 존재라고 폄하하는 것(혹은 숭배할 만하다고 찾는 것)보다 더 쉬운 출발이 어디 있겠는가? 이것은 조잡한 덫이고 너무나 오랫동안 효력을 발휘해왔다. 그 덫에서 벗어나기 위해 여성은 미라는 이름의 우월성과 특권으로부터 비판적인 거리를 유지해야 한다. “여성스러움”의 허상을 유지하기 위해, 미의 본질이 얼마나 축소되었는지를 충분한 거리를 두고 볼 수 있어야 한다. 여성으로부터, 그리고 여성들을 위해 미를 구해낼 방법이 반드시 있을 것이다.주요 문제 및 자체평가내용논의 및 평가단어 excellence의 해석본문 내에서 반복되는 단어인데 해석을 어떻게 해야할 지 고민한 결과 우월성, 우수성, 탁월성 등의 어휘를 상황에 맞도록 적절하게 배치하고자 했다.문단 1. 두번째 문장특히 lamely, enviously의 해

인문/어학| 2006.12.14| 9페이지| 2,500원| 조회(843)

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Jane Austen제인 오스틴 Emma엠마와 영화 Clueless클루리스 비교

True love and transformation, from the spoiled to the mature- The novel Emma and The film Clueless-IntroductionThese days, a substantial number of films have brought their motifs from preexisted novels. There are always controversial arguments whether the film is well-made by delivering the original texts’ intensions or not, which is better, and how different they are.The film Clueless (1995) made by Amy Heckerling is based on Jane Austen’s novel, Emma. Since Jane Austen is one of the most famous writers in the world, Clueless was also criticized by many critics. However, for I am not an expert of films or literature, I am going to focus on comparing Emma to Clueless in various aspects, and present some of interesting scenes which emphasize the original texts or vice versa.I am going to talk about two protagonists in Emma and Clueless, Emma Woodhouse and Cher Horovitz. Both common features and differences are explained. There are some differences from the only minor to the significant ving that they are the most suitable matchmaker for others, both Emma and Cher want to help Harriet and Tai. While Emma helps Harriet to be more a decent lady in a way of thinking and speaking, Cher decides to give Tai a complete make-over-somewhat superficial: new clothes, a different hairstyle, and even a toned body (Ferriss, 438). Cher innocently believes if she makes Tai well dressed and popular, Tai’s life will be better because of her (Clueless). Obviously Cher, like Emma, is not only helping out of the goodness of her heart, but she is also feeding her own self-esteem and pride.As upgrading Harriet and Tai to higher status, Emma and Cher make rules to be followed in dating and marriage. Harriet and Tai are not allowed to see certain males Emma and Cher find appropriate. Even though Harriet falls in love with Mr. Martin, and Tai has feelings toward Travis, Emma and Cher ignore, and dissent from their feelings. According to Emma, Martin will eventually become "a completely gross, sense. You (Cher) and I make sense." "Don't you know who my father is?" (Clueless), Emma and Cher’s blindness are revealed. Both Emma and Cher feel really sorry for their behavior. Emma express her regret with saying “It was a wretched business, indeed!….That was the worst of all. Every part of it brought pain and humiliation.”(Austen, 87)Lastly, Emma and Cher become blind to Frank and Christian. With flirtation of Frank Churchill, Emma thinks that he likes her. However, it turns out that he is engaged in Jane Fairfax. In clueless, Cher’s partner, Christian is homosexual. Cher could not find out this even though his preference for males is visually represented some scenes. Cher’s statement "Can you see how he is falling in love with me? Look how he ignores every other girl." (Clueless) shows that she is selectively viewing only the way he pushes away the girl talking to him, and ignoring him chatting with a barman.By realizing all these mistakes, Emma and Cher have changed in a good wlly realizes that she is in love with Josh. To prove her worthy love toward Josh, Cher undergoes a character transformation. She becomes a contributor who uses his/her popularity for helping others(Clueless), who Josh always praises, and organizes a food drive for victims of a local disaster. Also, she becomes friends with Travis. When she attends his skateboarding competition, she says, "I didn't know he was so motivated."(Clueless) This complete change of opinion about Travis reflects Emma's new view of Robert Martin; she believes that Harriet is far better off with him, as opposed to her original opinion that any connection with Harriet would only degrade her social status.According to Shannon, "the advisability of openness and sincerity, the evil of slander and of hastening to derogatory conclusions, the cruelty of inflicting mental pain, the falseness of snobbery...[and] demonstrates that we cannot escape the consequences of our acts, that love is not an emotion to be toyed with, ould be easier topic for me to write than any others. However, comparing two adorable works is pretty harder than I expected. I could not say which is better, and worse, but I can tell that both of them can make positive synergy. Especially, for me, it is the most impressive scenes are Cher’s driving test scene, Tai’s confessing of her feeling towards Josh, and Cher’s walking along the Rodeo Street. I could see all the expressions and feelings that Cher has, as if Emma did in the novel, Emma. What I imagine while I read Emma was exactly shown in the film, Clueless. Especially, Cher’s facial expression change while she is listening Tai’s confession, it was just so nice that I felt like crying. When Cher’s recollections of Josh and other faults were overlapping with her voice-over, I could recollect my feelings and imagination of reading Emma.I was really sorry that I was planed too many things to write, but I could not even write half of them. If there is any chance to write this essay mma

인문/어학| 2008.07.23| 5페이지| 2,500원| 조회(915)

제인 오스틴, Emma, 엠마, clueless, 클루리스

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영화 '샤이닝(The Shining)' 완벽 분석 영문 레포트

Several themes in the film, The ShiningSince Stanley Kubrick’s movie The Shining has come out, there are a substantial number of views toward the film. Many critics have been still arguing what the real theme of The Shining is and what Kubrick’s intension to make this film is. Critics like Blakemore (1987) concentrate on the history of America, especially the murder of the Native American race. Others see the film as the story of patriarch, and gender boundaries as Kilker did (2006). The fans of Stephan King who is the author of original novel The Shining regarde the film as just horror movie, while the academic film studies community tends to revere the film as a political critique of the American nuclear family. (Metz, 1997) There are also telepathy and supernatural themes which is called ‘shining’. Since every single theme is crucial to understand The Shining, this essay will concentrate on the scene that has almost every feature above. According to Jeffress and Leibowitz, from Wendriarch (2006), Jeffress and Leibowitz also regard Jack's writing as a sense of Jack’s manhood. Writing novel is vitally important to him; thus he feels horribly threatened by his inability to produce. He searches for a scapegoat, a reason for the failure, never entertaining the idea that he might be the source of the problem (1981). Obviously he has failed as a writer, but he never wants to admit it. Also, his writing has a sense that Jack's frustrations as a writer play a large part in his slippage into insanity (Metz, 1997). The obsessively repeated phrase, "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy," itself is one of foreshadowing that Jack is going to be abnormal. It is later associated with his burden as a caretaker and man, father, and husband of family.About Jack’s writing, there is another interesting perspective. Kirkpatrick presents his idea that this is related to Marshall McLuhan’s perspective. He states that the climactic discovery of Jack's repeated manuscript can be takview altogether. In the staircase scene, the camera also keeps moving representing another point of view. When Wendy and Jack start to step up the stairs, the camera doesn’t stand for their view. Even if there are reverse shots, each of shot contains both Wendy and Jack. For instance, the viewer still can see Wendy’s shoulder and back of her silhouette while watching Jack’s full figure and vice versa. All these camera moves show the presence of another view point, the ghost, monster, or whatever it is, that lives in the Overlook Hotel.In Danny’s frightening scene, we can see the river of blood, the letter ‘REDRUM’ at the door, and a voice-over of his father, Jack. Danny has an extrasensory perceptive gift which is called ‘shining.’ According to Hallorann, there are people who can shine as well as things like Overlook Hotel which can shine. ‘Shine’ is an ability to see past, present, and/or future events (Blakemore, 1987). Interestingly, as Hallorann said, Danny sees all the past, prese to talk about his responsibility, but it seems unreasonable. At this point, I am really wondering that Jack has ever done his job as a caretaker of the hotel properly. As far as I know, Jack always wants to write a novel, and his wife has actually been doing all the jobs, such as seeing to the heating, the radios, and the power plant. It was him that desperately attempts to retain his dominance, screaming and cursing at his wife, demanding isolation from her and his child with the excuse that he must be left alone to write (Kolker, 1988). He completely fails to do his own duties as a caretaker of the hotel, good husband, father, and last, the writer.Despite taking care of his wife and child with love and protect, Jack Torrance attempts to live out a male fantasy, but he ends up failing. Like all of Kubrick’s men, Jack is trapped. He is possessed by his own terror and hatred of the inhibitions placed on him by patriarchal imperatives. According to Kolker,“Within the generic elements ofcan. This blood wells out of the elevator shaft represents the genocide of the Native American. The Overlook hotel was built on the Indian burial ground, and it allegorically means that the hotel sank into many Native Americans’ blood. Nobody could hear the sound of rushing blood, and it represents that a mute nightmare of horrible history background. (Blakemore, 1987)In conclusion, by analyzing the sequence from Wendy’s finding Jack’s abnormal manuscript to their terrified arguing, this essay look at various possible theme in the film. Even if there are many themes in the film, nobody could say there is only one absolute theme. Indian motifs, white men’s burden, feminine aspects, and telepathy, all of them could be the major theme. A lot of people still argue what the genre of The Shining is. Is it horror movie, melodrama, or Science-fiction? No matter what it is the most important thing is to consider all the possibilities, and understand Kubrick’s intension. To concentrate on the mu.

독후감/창작| 2007.08.14| 7페이지| 3,500원| 조회(508)

샤이닝, The Shining, 스탠리 큐브릭, Stanley Kubrick, 영화 샤이닝

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영화 시민케인(Citizen Kane) 완벽 분석 영문 레포트

Textual Analysis of the selected sequence from Citizen KaneThe film, Citizen Kane, is one of the greatest movies. Even though it is well-known, many people, including me, seemingly know the fact that Citizen Kane is famous, but they might not know why, how, and what techniques are used in the film exactly. It is a good chance to know Citizen Kane more precisely by analyzing a certain sequence. I focus on each element that is used by Orson Welles a lot in his other films. However, no matter how famous the techniques are, I don’t focus on if I don’t think it’s important in this sequence.The most interesting thing in this sequence is the continuity of the sound. It is completely linked until the end of the sequence. According to David Cook, Welles called this technique the “lightning mix,” in which shots were rapidly linked together by the continuity of the sound track, not by the narrative logic of their images. (2004, p.330) Although the scene cuts or dissolves to a locale and time or nene illustrates Susan’s feelings and the cold relationship between Susan and Kane. Trumpet and trombone’s loud join seems like the sound of Susan and Kane’s arguing. Especially when Susan finishes her saying, “You never give me anything I really care about,” the trombone is loudly performed as if Kane, who doesn’t say anything but stare her, says “Stop it.” Also, “It can’t be love.” Sung at Kane’s Everglades picnic, its melody is repeated three times. We can hear this song’s piano version in the two scenes with Susan at the nightclub. Three repetitions link these three scenes together in a mournful mood. (Bordwell 1976, p.282) By repeating the song and the melody, Welles tries to explain “It can’t be love.” is lyrics related to not only the relationship between Susan and Kane but also Kane’s life.Now let’s take a look at the scene, the argument between Susan and Kane in the tent. Susan changes into a relaxed fitting nightdress and sits on the floor. She seems to decide to stand up to Kubla Khan in America. Xanadu is the place that Kubla Khan built his detached palace, and Xanado is the place for Kane. Also, Xanado’s huge, dignified, but isolated image is related to Kane. Susan always has to be overpowered by Kane in Xanado; there are no chances to raise her voice. Therefore, in the tent, Susan feels free to tell him what she thinks, feels, and wants. She makes her own voice more loudly rather than be oppressed.Even if the tent makes Susan more freely, she can’t escape from him completely yet. Still, we can find an authority of Kane toward Susan, and his strong, stubborn, and even dark image. When Kane sits on a chair droopingly with his fixed eye sight toward Susan, and firmly fixed chin, he seems to be stubborn. Because of the low-key light, his wrinkles make him appear older and obviously exhausted. Actually, this low-key light makes shadow over the left side of Kane’s face. This is a notable discrimination. Susan seems brighter than Kane. According to David Cook,ramatic low angle shot. The tension peaks and he’s glaring down Susan in a low angle. Susan also looks sharply at him in a high angle shot. The high angle makes Susan seem tiny and extremely vulnerable. On the contrary, low angle usually projects extreme psychological states. While shooting from a low angle perspective can make a character seem dominant and confident. (Fabe 2004, p.93) Therefore, most of scene, Kane is in a low angle to see others, and it shows his dignity toward other people around him.While Kane and Susan are having conversation, the camera moves to each people, not together. In other words, they are not in the same frame, but separated. Even if it is possible to put them in one frame using long takes of Kane and Susan, Welles chooses two medium shots with soft focus, reverse angle close ups. By using these, Welles can show us realistic relationship between Kane and Susan. The couple speaks to each other not sharing the screen space as if they are always together, buaming. It is because of her desperate marriage and the pitch of her voice peaks when they argue in the tent. This means that her rage toward Kane and frustration she had has reached to the climax. On the contrary, Kane’s voice becomes weak. There is no more powerful, confident, and authoritative voice, but exhausted, feeble, and prostrate murmur. Even though he gets upset for Susan’s saying about his inability to love, and confusion with ownership and monetary exchange, he doesn’t say much, but slap her.In conclusion, by analyzing given sequence in Citizen Kane, I can learn why, how, and what techniques Welles use, and the effects of them. Each element, such as the sound, lighting, editing, and camera angles has a decisive role in Citizen Kane. I found that not one, but all can affect whole film, and in this film, they are well-balanced. I’m sure that’s why many people acclaim this film.Bibliography· Bazin, Andre 1996, Orson Welles: a critical view, Harper & Row, New York· Bordwell, Da

독후감/창작| 2007.08.14| 5페이지| 3,500원| 조회(684)

기법, 영화 분석, Citizen Kane, 시민 케인, 시민케인 분석

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호프스테드의 4가지(5가지) 문화 이론에 대한 건설적인 비판. -과연 문화에 대한 개념을 4가지,혹은 5가지 이론으로 설명할 수 있는가?-

Does Hofstede’s Cultural Dimension really simplify the Concept of Culture?Greert Hofstede’s Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (Hofstede, 1980) has been utilized by thousands of researchers in a wide variety of empirical studies for over two decades. As much as his work has been influential, he has been criticized in many ways. Simplifying culture to overly four or five dimensions, limiting the sample to a single multinational corporation, ignoring other factors except national culture values, dividing culture to bipolar sides, and using concept based on western bias are regarded as the most well known criticism (Nakata & Sivakumar 2001). However, In spite of the criticisms, researchers have favored his framework and made it the dominant culture paradigm (Gibson, Kirkman, & Lowe, 2006). According to Jaeger who quoted Triandis(1982), “Although it has some limitations, most likely it will ‘stand as one of the major land-marks of cross-cultural researould be all right. However, in his theory, there are crucial, but fatal errors which can make people’s concept of culture simple.As Lytle et al., said ‘Hofstede’s data was representative of a very limited segment of the overall national population' (1995), limiting the sample to a single multinational corporation is another problem of his work. It is absolutely crucial to select right cultures or samples that represent an adequate range on the specific and single cultural variable of interest (Berry, 1980). If the range is inadequate, results can not be right, but spurious. Because of financial and psychological costs, and methodological problems (Nasif et al., in Nakata and Sivakumar, 2001), a study like Hofstede’s, which use forty plus countries as a sample is really rare in international business research. Typically two to four countries are compared in cross national studies. However, Hofstede still couldn’t accomplish the perfect sampling.Hofstede conducted the scale of IBM surveyhe United States at that time (Whitley, 1992; Lytle et al., 1995).Another question about Hofstede’s theory is why it should be assumed that only the national culture is influential. Hofstede assumed that the differences identified on his national stratification are consequences of national culture (Roberts, 1995). Even though he acknowledges that within nations there are other cultures (Hofstede, 1980), he tends not to be consistent in his conception of culture. Other types of cultures are treated to exist but barely allowed while national culture is regarded as constitutive (McSweeney, 2002). Critics wonder why the idea of national cultural causation should be regarded more important than other means of social action (Archer, 1989).Hofstede also ignored the heterogeneity within the nation itself, and the possibilities of changing nation’s circumstances. As well as Philip Bock states 'we must conclude that the uniformity assumption is false' (1999), there is an extensive literature whinational culture of China. Integration of Hong Kong into China didn’t mean that Hong Kong’s national culture should be same as entire China’s. Interestingly, their four dimensional scores were radically different from each other’s rather than similar (1980).Hofstede simply divided culture into bipolar, contrasting positions. In his cultural dimensions, two opposite poles exist as ‘individualism’ and ‘collectivism’. Even though they can coexist depending on the situation, and we all have both individual and collective traits (Triandis, 1994), Hofstede exclude such coexistence. He overlooked the fact that people can have incompatible ideas and values in different situations. As Smelser(1992) says: “any culture will present a number of contradictory adages or sayings ("look before you leap" and "he who hesitates is lost") as part of its repertoire” (Smelser in McSweeney, 2002).In conclusion, since Hofstede’s cultural dimension has fatal errors, and make people think culture simpler, peoplorating Hofstede's cultural values framework, Journal of International Business Studies, Expanded Academic ASAP, Thomson Gale, Griffith University Library, 21 May. 2007.Goodstein, L. D. 1981, Commentary: Do American theories apply abroad? Organizational Dynamics, Summer, 49-54.Hall, Edward. 1976, Beyond Culture. Garden City: NY: Anchor Press/ Doubleday.Hofstede, G. 1980, Culture's consequences: international differences in work-related values, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Hofstede, G. 1981, Do American theories apply abroad? A reply to Goodstein and Hunt Organizational Dynamics, 1981, Summer, 63-68.Jaeger, Alfred M. 1986, Organization development and national culture: Where’s the fit?, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 11, No.1, 178-199.Lytle, A. L., Brett, J. M., Barsness, Z. I., Tinsley, C. H. & Janssens, M. A. 1995, Paradigm for confirmatory cross-cultural research in organizational behaviour, Research in Organizational Behaviour, 167-214.McSweeney, Brendan. 2002, Hofstede's model o.

인문/어학| 2007.08.14| 6페이지| 2,500원| 조회(2,553)

Hofstede, 문화이론, 호프스테드, Greet Hofstede

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