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[사회학]과학적 진리와 종교적 진리 평가B괜찮아요

이른바 과학적 진리(Scientific truth)와 종교적 진리(Religious truth)는 결코 같지 않다. 이들 간의 관계와 관련하여1) 양자를 구분하는 기준들은 무엇이며사전적 의미의 진리는 언제 어디서나 누구든지 승인할 수 있는 보편적인 법칙이나 사실을 말한다. 그런데 어떤 것이 보편적인 법칙이나 사실인지는 무엇으로 증명해야 하며, 또 증명하는 방법 자체가 타당성이 있는지, 아니면 증명되지 못할 경우 그것을 진리라고 할 수 없는 것인지 이런 것들을 단숨에 말하기는 쉽지 않다.흔히 과학적 진리는 경험이나 증명을 통해 진리임을 밝히지만 종교적 진리는 이를 넘어선 것이라 할 수 있다. 과학적 진리라는 것은, 가설을 설정하고 그러한 가설에 대해 현재 과학에서 인정할 만한 방법으로 증명을 하는 수준으로 제시를 하게 되면 일정정도 과학적 진리라고 인정을 받게 된다. 하지만 근본적으로 과학적 진리라는 것은 절대성을 가질 수는 없는데, 그것은 모든 과학적 진리가 가설이라는 것에서 시작하였고, 그러한 가설이 진리로 인정되는 것은 단순히 "아직까지 그러한 가설을 뒤집을 만한 반론이 제기되지 않았다"는 것을 인정하는 정도에 머문다고 하겠다. 따라서 과학자들 사이에서도 현재의 과학적 진리라는 것들이 절대성을 가지는 진정한 진리라고 확신하지 못하고 있는 형편이다.한편, 종교적 진리라는 것은 각 종교 교파 내에서 규정된 내용들을 가리키는 것으로, 그것은 과학적 방법으로 증명되는 것들은 아니고 오직 믿음 또는 신앙이라는 기준을 가지고 평가를 할 수 있다. 그런데 종교를 믿는 신자의 믿음 정도에 따라 종교적 진리는 약간은 상대적일 것이라고 생각할 수 있을 것이다. 그러나 개인의 신앙이 종교의 절대적 진리 자체를 훼손시킬 수 없다. 예를 들면 선천적 맹인에게 자연의 아름다움을 설명해 보라고 했을 때 극단적으로 자기가 경험한 깜깜함만을 주장한다고 해서 자연의 아름다움이 훼손되지 않는 것과 같다고나 할까?결국 과학적 진리와 종교적 진리의 차이를 이야기한다면 아무래도 형이상학(meta physics)과 물리학(physics)으로 구분 할 수 있겠다. 즉, 과학적 진리가 다루는 대상이 물질적인 것이라면 종교적 진리가 다루는 대상은 아무래도 물질을 넘어서는 정신적인 부분들, 다시 말해 현실에서 증명하기 어려운 부분들에 대한 것이라 보고, 그러한 다른 대상에 대한 답들을 진리라고 이름 붙일 수 있을 것이다.그러나 과학과 종교는 서로 위배되지 않는다. 즉, 과학과 종교가 추구하는 진리가 원칙적으로 서로 모순되지 않는다는 말이다. 그리고 과학과 종교는 고유한 양식으로 세계와 인간에 대한 보다 깊고 정확한 이해를 가능케 하며 세계 안에서의 삶을 개선시키는데 이바지하고 있다. 그러나 과학이 추구하는 '지식'의 대상으로서의 진리와, 종교가 추구하는 '신앙'의 대상으로서의 진리는 구조면에서 서로 구별된다. 그리고 과학과 종교의 진리탐구의 방법과 그 결과의 성격이 대조적이라고 말할 수 있다. 다시 말하면 과학은 물질세계를 연구하는 학문이고, 신학은 영적 진리를 추구하는 학문이다.2) 과학적 진리가 상대성을 지닐 경우 발생할 수 있는 문제점(들)많은 사람들이 과학에 대해 잘못된 선입견과 편견을 가지고 있다. 요즘에 과학이라고 하면 정확하고 완벽하고 좋은 것 심하게는 진리라고 까지 받아들여지고 있다. 그래서 '과학이냐 아니냐' 하는 것은 그 주장하는 내용이 진실이냐 아니냐에 따라 구별하는 것으로 생각하고 있는 사람들도 많이 있다. 주장하는 바가 진실이면 과학이고, 주장하는바가 거짓이면 비과학이라고 생각하는 것이다. 과학의 내용이 항상 완전하고 정확하다고 생각하는 사람들에게 이러한 구분은 매우 설득력이 있는 것 같다. 그러나 과학에 대한 이러한 생각이 의미를 가지기 위해서는 어떤 것이 참이고 어떤 것이 거짓인지를 가려낼 수 있는 능력이 전제되어야 한다. 하지만 우리가 얻어내는 과학적 이론들은 방법적인 문제로 인해 진리를 확실하게 가려낼 수 없다. 단지 어떤 이론이 말하는 것들이 단지 진리에 가까운 것이거나 현상을 이해하는데 유용하기 때문에 과학적 이론들이 필요할 뿐이다. 미결정성에 의해서 현상을 설명하는 이론은 충분히 여러 가지가 있고 증거를 통한 완벽한 이론은 필연적으로 진리가 아니다. 설명을 하기 위한 관찰된 자료에는 한계가 있기 때문이다. 이러한 자료의 한계 때문에 과학은 진리인 듯한 설명을 하게 되는 것이다.따라서 과학이냐 아니냐 하는 것은 결론에 의해서가 아니라 그 결론을 이끌어 내는 과정에 의해서 구분해야 한다. 과학이란 인간이 인간의 이성을 이용해서 합리적으로 진실을 추구해 가는 사고 체계이다. 따라서 어떤 결론이 과학적이기 위해서는 그 결론이 유도되는 과정이 합리적이어야 한다. 합리적이라는 것은 정상적인 이성을 가진 사람들을 납득시킬 수 있는 것이어야 한다는 뜻이다. 그러므로 과학을 결론의 학문이 아니라 과정의 학문이라고 할 수 있다. 따라서 어떤 결론이 과학적이기 위해서는 그 결론을 도출해 내는 과정이 올바른 과학적 방법에 의해 이루어져야 한다. 과학의 방법은 기본적으로 귀납법과 연역법이라고 하는 큰 틀을 기본으로 하고 있다. 귀납법은 실험, 관찰, 통계와 같은 방법으로 개별적 사실로부터 일반 원리를 발견해 가는 과정이다. 반면에 연역법은 우리가 확연히 알 수 있는 명제에서부터 논리적 추론에 의해 결론을 이끌어 내는 방법이다. 하지만 연역법으로 도출된 결론은 항상 전제에 포함되어 있기 때문에 새로운 진리를 이끌어 낼 수 없다. 또한 우리가 확연히 알 수 있는 명제가 항상 참이라는 보증이 없기 때문에 연역법의 결론이 거짓으로 나올 수도 있는 것이다.그렇다면 과학의 기본적으로 이론을 만들어 내는데 사용되는 귀납법은 관찰과 통계를 통해 가설을 세우고 그리고 나서 실험을 통한 검증으로 이론을 만들어 낸다. 그러나 이것은 위에서도 말했듯이 자료의 한계로 인해 진리를 도출해 낼 수 없다. 그리고 과학자들은 한 현상을 설명하는 여러 가지 이론이 있고 하나의 완벽에 가까운 이론이 있다면 그 이론과 상반되는 내용을 다룬 이론은 다시 수정되고 다른 실험적 관찰을 통해서 그 이론이 잘못되었다는 것을 입증하게 된다.

사회과학| 2007.04.03| 2페이지| 1,000원| 조회(1,140)

과학적진리, 종교적진리, 상대성의 문제점

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[작가조사]Ernest Hemingway에 대해(영어)

Ernest HemingwayErnest Hemingway was born on 21st July 1899 in Oak Park, Chicago, the second of six children. He was born at eight o'clock in the south front bedroom of 439 North Oak Park Avenue. At seven weeks old he was taken to Bear Lake to the shore front property that his father, Dr Ed Hemingway had purchased the summer before. It was not until October 1st, on his parent's third wedding anniversary that he was christened, Ernest Miller, Hemingway at the First Congregational Church. In his first year he experienced the pleasures of life on the shore at Bear Lake and at three he had caught his first fish. His mother described him at three and a half years of age as: " Ernest Miller is a little man - no longer lazy - dresses himself completely and is a good helper for his father. He wears suspenders just like Papa. He is very proud to be a member of Agassiz (a nature study group organised by his father). He counts up to 100, can spell by ear very well. He likes to build cannons and ft 600 North Kenilworth Avenue and Iowa Street. It was eight bedrooms, three stores house, with an office for his father, where he could conduct his medical business. It was a strict household, no enjoyment was to be taken on Sunday, the Lord's day. This was to be spent in church and pursuing religious interests. Disobedience was punished by a few lashes from a razor strap administered by Hemingway's father, or a hairbrush from his mother.Ernest's mother taught all her children music and creativity and took them to concerts, art galleries and operas. Ernest's father taught his children to love nature. To build fires, to cook in the open, how to use an axe, how to tie wet and dry flies, how to make bullets, how to prepare birds and small animals for mounting. He insisted on the proper handling of guns, rods and tackle and he taught Ernest physical courage and endurance.Ernest's winters were spent in Chicago, his summers at Bear Lake.It was on his twelve birthday he was given a present ofbjects. After Ernest graduated from High School, his father's desire was for him to go to college but Ernest had very different ideas. Ernest Hemingway wanted to join the forces or learn to write.Having been forbidden to join up for the First World War by his father, Ernest applied for a job as a journalist and by October 1917 Hemingway was employed by the Kansas City Star.Ernest had to leave home to take up his job. His father accompanied him to the train station and stood by the train until his son's moment of departure. Ernest was to remember the leaving for a long time afterwards and wrote about it in 'For Whom the Bell Tolls' relating the mixed emotions he felt of sadness, relief and adulthood.He first lived in the 3600 block of Warwick Boulevard with his uncle. Later he lived in a small rented apartment with his friend Carl Edgar, in Agnes Street.Ernest's job on the Star was to cover the 'short-stop run', which entailed the 15th Street Police Station, the Union Station and the Geish, positive and not negative writing. He learned at The Star that professional reporters stated the way things are. They did not ramble on about how things might be if this or that were true; they declared what was. The idea was to tell the readers what had happened, for first a man had to go out and find what was happening.Hemingway also found a very good mentor in Lionel Calhoun Moise. Hemingway as a young rookie was impressed with Moise's facility with words and his hard drinking, undisciplined lifestyle of alcohol and violence.Ernest drove ambulance for the Red Cross near the Italian front. He was himself wounded on July 8, 1918 and spent months in hospital convalescing.Hemingway returned to the U.S., a bit of a local hero in Oak Park. He then went back to reporting, and, in 1921, he met, courted, and married Hadley Richardson of St. Louis. Upon the advice of Sherwood Anderson, the couple went to live in Paris. Ernest was working for the Toronto Star, and they were also living oferful and revealing personal account of the writers and artists and culture and life and times of Paris in the 1920s.Ernest and Hadley had a son, John (nicknamed "Bumby"), in October 1923. The young family toured a lot of Europe, skiing in the winter and hiking various parts of central Europe. Also, during the summers, beginning in 1923, the Hemingways would travel to Spain for the Festival of San Fermin in Pamplona. These Spanish experiences provided the material for his first novel, The Sun Also Rises, published in 1926. It was also during 1926 that Hemingway's marriage to Hadley broke up, after he had met the wealthy Pauline Pfeiffer. Ernest and Pauline were married in 1927, and they had two more sons: Patrick in 1928, and Gregory in 1931. It was during his marriage to Pauline that Ernest bought a house in Key West, Florida.In the late 1930s, Hemingway met and fell in love with Martha Gellhorn, herself a journalist and writer. The two were married in 1940. Ernest purchased the Finca.

인문/어학| 2005.01.17| 3페이지| 1,000원| 조회(273)

헤밍웨이, 노인과 바다, Hemingway, 누구를 위하여 종은

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[작가조사] Mark Twain에 대해(영어)

Mark Twain(Samuel Clemens)Samuel Clemens was born on November 30, 1835 in Florida, Missouri, the sixth of seven children. At the age of four, his family moved to the small frontier town of Hannibal, Missouri on the banks of the Mississippi River. Missouri was a fairly new state and comprised part of the country's western border. It was also a slave state. His father owned one slave and his uncle owned several. In fact, it was on his uncle's farm that Samuel spent many boyhood summers playing in the slave quarters, listening to tall tales and the slave spirituals that he would enjoy throughout his life.When he was 11, his father died. Shortly thereafter he left school, having completed the fifth grade, to work as a printer's apprentice for a local newspaper. His job was to arrange the type for each of the newspaper's stories, allowing him to read the news of the world while completing his work. At 18, he headed east to New York City and Philadelphia where he worked on several different ngers, but he quit after just two weeks.In search of a new career, Samuel headed west in July of 1861, at the invitation of his brother, Orion, who had just been appointed Secretary of the Nevada Territory. Lured by the infectious hope of striking it rich in Nevada's silver rush, he traveled across the open frontier from Missouri to Nevada by stagecoach. Along the journey he encountered Native American tribes for the first time as well as a variety of unique characters, mishaps and disappointments. These events would find a way into his short stories and books, particularly Roughing It. After failing as a silver prospector, Samuel began writing for the Territorial Enterprise, a Virginia City, Nevada newspaper where he used, for the first time, his pen name, Mark Twain. Wanting a change by 1864, Sam headed for San Francisco where he continued to write for local papers.In 1865, Samuel's first "big break" came with the publication of his short story, "Jim Smiley and His Jumping Frog" in pd in New York City in 1867. He quickly signed up for a steamship tour of Europe and the Holy Land. His travel letters, full of vivid descriptions and tongue-in-cheek observations, met with such audience approval that they were later reworked into his first book, The Innocents Abroadin 1869. It was also on this trip that Clemens met his future brother-in-law, Charles Langdon. Langdon reportedly showed Samuel a picture of his sister, Olivia, and Samuel fell in love at first sight.After courting for two years, Samuel Clemens and Olivia Langdon were married in 1870. They settled in Buffalo, New York where he had become a partner, editor and writer for the daily newspaper the Buffalo Express. While living in Buffalo, their first child was born.In an effort to be closer to his publisher, he moved his family to Hartford, Connecticut in 1871. For the first few years the Clemenses rented a house in the heart of Nook Farm, a residential area that was home to numerous writers, publishers and othehat seemed to dominate the era. For the next 17 years (1874-1891), Samuel lived in the Hartford home. During those years he completed some of his most famous works. Novels such as The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and Life on the Mississippi(1883) captured both his Missouri memories and depictions of the American scene. Yet, his social commentary continued. The Prince and the Pauper (1881) explored class relations as does A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court(1889) which, going a step further, criticized oppression in general while examining the period's technology explosion. And, in perhaps his most famous work, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) Clemens satirized the institution of slavery and railed against the failures of Reconstruction and the continued poor treatment of African-Americans overall.From 1891 until 1900, his family traveled throughout the world. During those years, he witnessed the increasing exploitation of weaker governments by European powers, which he on human greed, cruelty and questioned the humanity of the human race. His public appearances followed suit and included a harshly sardonic public introduction of Winston Churchill in 1900. Even though his lecture tour had managed to get him out of debt, his anti-government writings and speeches threatened his livelihood once again. Labeled by some as a traitor, several of his works were never published during his lifetime either because magazines would not accept them or because of a personal fear that his marketable reputation would be ruined.In 1903, after living in New York City for three years, Samuel returned to Italy where Olivia died a year later. After her death, he lived in New York until 1908 when he moved into his last house, "Stormfield", in Redding, Connecticut. Four months later on April 21, 1910, he died at the age of 74.Like any good journalist, Samuel Clemens spent his life observing and reporting on his surroundings. In his writings he provided images of the romantic

인문/어학| 2005.01.17| 3페이지| 1,000원| 조회(497)

마크트웨인, 톰소여의 모험, Mark Twain, Samuel clemens

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[천문학] 여러 은하의 사진

(본 자료는 사진으로 되어있습니다.)

자연과학| 2004.10.27| 1페이지| 1,000원| 조회(666)

우리은하, 나선은하, 안드로메다은하, 타원은하, 불규칙은하

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