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Leech의 공손격률 발표자료

2020 의미론 Leech (1983) pp. 131-136 홍길동 1201912346.1. Maxims of politeness - “the Politeness Principle” - It concerns a relationship between self (s) and other (h, and third parties) - The importance of showing politeness to third parties varies: whether or not they are present as a bystander; whether they belong to s ’s or h ’s sphere of influence; cross-cultural variations; etc.Tact Maxim: minimize cost to other ; maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim: minimize benefit to self ; maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other ; maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim: minimize praise of self ; maximize dispraise of self Agreement Maxim: minimize disagreement between self and other ; maximize agreement between self and other Sympathy Maxim: minimize antipathy between self and other ; maximize sympathy between self and other6.1.1. The Generosity Maxim - “ Bilaterality ”, Maxim of Tact and Maxim of Generosity [1] (Impolite) You can lend me your car. [2] I can lend you my car. [3] You must come and have dinner with us. [4] (Impolite) We must come and have dinner with you. - Not always ! [5] You can get them for less than half the price at the market. (T) [6] Could I have some more X? (G)- Generosity Maxim is less powerful than the Tact Maxim [7] “Could I borrow this electric drill?” instead of “Could you lend me this electric drill?” [8] “ I wouldn’t mind a cup of coffee.” instead of “Could you spare me a cup of coffee?” [9] “ You could borrow my bicycle, if you like.” instead of “ I could lend you my bicycle, if you like.” [10] “Would you like these pencils sharpened?” instead of “Would you like me to sharpen these pencils?”6.1.2. The Approbation Maxim - In its negative aspect, “Avoid saying unpleasant things about others, and more particularly, about h ” [11] What a marvelous meal you cooked! [12] (Impolite) What an awful meal you cooked! - Various strategies of indirectness are employed to mitigate the effect of criticism [13] A: Her performance was magnificent, wasn’t it! B: Was it? (violating the CP, especially Maxim of Quantity)[14] ‘Dear Sir, Mr. X’s command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, etc.’ [Grice 1975: 52] - The reluctance to criticize manifests itself in institutionalized forms of understatement [15] You could be more careful . [16] Her performance was not so good as it might have been . [17] A: Do you like these apricots? B: I’ve tasted better .Discussion Questions 1. According to Leech, there are six maxims related to the Politeness Principle and some maxims are more powerful than others (e.g. Tact Maxim than Generosity Maxim; Approbation Maxim than Modesty Maxim). Do you agree with this idea? Or would there be any differences among speakers? 2. When two maxims clash, how would you evaluate ( im )politeness? ex) p.135 [10] A: Your performance was outstanding! B: †Yes, wasn’t it!{nameOfApplication=Show}

인문/어학| 2020.12.30| 8페이지| 3,000원| 조회(111)

의미론, Semantics, Leech, 공손이론, 공손격률

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영어발음, 영단어어원과 관련한 북챕터 요약

Summary of Chapters 8 and 10 of Stockwell and Minkova (2001)Chapter 8. Fossilized allomorphy: false cognates and other etymological pitfalls1. Fossilized allomorphy- They have different in forms, yet historically related (cognates)- As a consequence of systematic changes in pre-Old English times (gradation, rhoticism)2. Gradation- The Indo-European vowels e and o once alternated with each other and with zero in different grammatical forms or word classes (e-grade, o-grade, and zero-grade) (e.g. kel “hollow, cover” -> cellar, color, clandestine)- Quantitative gradation: short vowels alternate with long or reduced vowels (e.g. stand-stood)- Gradation in GermanicIn the classical languages and in Germanic, it often signaled change from one word-class to anotherThe major function of gradation within the Germanic is to mark person, number, and tense of a large class of verbs3. Rhotacism3.1. Rhotacism in Latin- It accompanied the addition of vowel-initial suffixes (-is, -a, -um, -ere) to word (e.g. rise-rear, sneeze-snore)4. Metathesis (transposition)- The transposition of sounds, and sometimes syllables, in a word (e.g. [ks] [sk] in mix-promiscuous)- Sometimes metathesis combines with other processes and obscures transparent historical allomorphy (e.g. with e-grade)5. Obscure cognates: completely unpredictable allomorphy- When the formal relationship between the allomorphs has become non-transparent, or that the semantic and logical link between the two allomorphs can no longer be reconstructed- e.g. spec, plec, fac, neg, lig => spy, ply, (de)fy, (de)ny, (re)ly (phonetically obscure)- The opacity of words which look and sound like Latin words has interesting consequences for word-creation and spelling in English (e.g. doubt, debt; advance, advantage, adventure)- Some others are completely unpredictable allomorphy (e.g. circ, curv, cor “round, around”; cub, cumb “lie, hollow”; vid, id, ed “see”)6. False cognates6.1. Boundary misplacement- Often a string of morphemes or woe”, con- “jointly, together” – con- “altogether, completely”- They can result from one of the phonetic changes like N-drop (e.g. an- “not” -> a-), Prefixal Assimilation (e.g. ad- “to, towards” -> ap-), Vowel-Drop (e.g. para- “along, beyond” -> par-)- Conversion from one grammatical class to another can create suffix homophony (e.g. -ate, -ute, and -ite for adjective, verb, or noun; -al, -esque, -ic, -ive, -oid for adjective or noun)7. Pseudo-suffixes- Misanalysis sometimes enrich the inventory of formative elements (e.g. burger, buster, cast)8. Semantic variation- Frequently various related meanings reside within the same form (e.g. arch(aeo) “foremost, begin, rule”, cast “purify, fortify”)9. Multiple derivatives – multiple meanings- The shifting of the semantic focus, or the complete change of the semantic content of a root in derived words- It can happen either within the scope of a single root (e.g. radish and radical), or in the process of suffixation (two suffixes with the same grish1. Unassimilated classical words1.1 The pronunciation of consonants in unassimilated classical words- The Latin consonant letters are commonly pronounced in accord with the English orthographyc -> always [k] in classical sound, but [s] before i, e in Anglicized soundg -> always [g] in classical sound, but [ǰ] before i, e in Anglicized soundt -> always [t] in classical sound, but [š] before iV, e in Anglicized soundv -> [w] in classical sound, but [v] in Anglicized sound1.2. The pronunciation of vowels in unassimilated classical words- (1) The vowels are normally pronounced in English in that position in the word, the system used in Britain, or- (2) as in other European languages such as Spanish, German, French, the system used in America (i.e. or -> [ɑ]; -> [e]; or -> [i]; -> [o]; -> [u] or [yu]; -> like [i] if long, but [ε] if short)2. The pronunciation of fully assimilated classical words- The pronunciation of the consonants , , varies depending on whether the source is G Some suffixes are stress neutral (e.g. -dom, -en, -er, -ess, -ful, -hood) (but the borrowed ones -ist and -ize require stress on the third syllable from the end when attached to non-free forms)- Others are stress demanding (i.e. when they are added to a stem, they always steal the stress from the stem and require that it be placed on them) (e.g. -aire, -ee, -eer, -elle)- Some words take main stress on the final syllable because their original stress is on that position3.2. Steps in determination of main stress placement- (1) Remove inflectional suffixes and stress neutral suffixes- (2) If the word has two syllables, stress the first one (with some exceptions, e.g. only in nouns esCORT (V) – EScort (N))- (3) In words of three syllables or more, determine whether the penult (i.e. the next-to-last syllable) is heavy or light- (4) If the penult is heavy, stress it- (5) If the penult is light, stress the antepenult4. Stress-changing affixes- Words with stress-changing affixes regularly chable

인문/어학| 2020.12.30| 5페이지| 2,000원| 조회(173)

영어발음, 음운론, 영단어어원, 영어강세, 영어억양

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여러 음운규칙 및 형태소변화와 관련한 북챕터 요약

Summary of Chapters 5~7 of Stockwell and Mincova (2001)Chapter 5. Allomorphy, phonetics, and affixation1. Morphological rules1.1 Types of allomorphy- Zero allomorphy: they preserve the base form in all the derivatives where they appear (e.g. phil- ‘love’ in Philadelphia, philanthropy, philology, zoophilia)- Irregular allomorphy: irregular forms due to some sound change (with lots of “exceptions”), or totally unpredictable forms (e.g. ab- (abs-) ‘from, away’, dei- (deo-; theo-) ‘god, deity’)- Regular allomorphy: they are governed by rules (e.g. from syn- to sym-, syl-, and syn-)- Derivation: a root can be extended by an affix or by another root (e.g. derive -> derivative, derivation, derivational)1.2. Origins of allomorphy- Phonetic changeEase of pronunciation: some phonetic sequences are preferable to others because they are easier to pronounce (e.g. homo- ‘same’ + -onym ‘name’ -> homonym, not homo-onym)Age or time of entry of the word into English: phonetic sequences slowly changed bymetimes some members of a word-family become unrecognizable as variants of a single morpheme (e.g. bandit, infant, emphatic)2. The sounds of English2.1. Phonetic notation systems- Mainly, “the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)”2.2. Phonetic symbols in square brackets- Sounds are presented enclosed in square brackets2.3. Consonantal parameters- Place of articulation (bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar), manner of articulation (stop, affricate, fricative, nasal sonorant, oral sonorant), and voicing (voiced, voiceless)2.4. English vowels- Vowel variation: vowel articulation varies depending on dialect areas- Vowel parameters: tongue height, tongue fronting, lip rounding- Reduction of vowels: when a vowel loses its prominence, it becomes reduced (e.g. telegraphy [təlɛgrəfi] -> telegraph [tɛləgræf])3. The affixes of English3.1. Prefixes- Counting-prefixes (e.g. a-, ambi-, arch-, multi-, pan-); involvement prefixes (e.g. anti-, auto-, contra-, vice-); judgment prefixment rules1. Assimilation and types of assimilation- Replacing one vowel or consonant more similar to, or even identical with, another (regressive or progressive; partial or full assimilation)2. Labial assimilation- Prefer labials before labials: -n + [p-, b-, m-, f-] -> -m (e.g. con- + -bat -> combat)- Exceptions to labial assimilation: the native prefix un- ‘not’ or ‘reversal’3. Voicing assimilation- g + [t, s] -> k; b + [t, s] -> p; v + [t, θ] -> f3.1. Sound vs. spelling- Sound changes do not always change the spelling of words3.2. Left-to-right voicing assimilation- In English inflectional morphology, consonantal assimilations occur from left to right (e.g. racks [s]-rags [g], taps [s]-bids [z], masses [əs]-garages [əz])4. Total assimilation4.1. Total assimilation of prefixes- Frequently occurred in borrowed words where prefixes ending in consonants are attached to roots beginning with a non-identical consonant (e.g. ad+cur+ate -> accurate; ad+spir+ation -> aØspiration)4.2. Double ocalization- v + [Consonants; usually t] -> u (e.g. astro + nav + t -> astronaut)6. Vowel replacements6.1. A-Lenition- $ a -> e (e.g. art -> artistic -> inert; cap -> captive -> deceptive )6.2. E-Lenition- $ e C1 + V -> i (e.g. leg -> legion -> diligent; sed -> sediment -> president)6.3. Multiple lenition- A-lenition first, then E-lenition (e.g. capture -> receptive -> incipient)7. Backness assimilation- [0e] l + C -> ul (e.g. cel -> cellar -> occult; pel -> propel -> propulsion)Chapter 7. Deletion rules and other kinds of allomorphy1. Consonant deletion1.1. S-Degemination- esk + [s] -> Ø (e.g. ex + spir -> expire; ex + sequ -> exequires)- Spelling exceptions: the rule applies in the pronunciation, but does not affect the spelling (e.g. exscind, exsiccate, exsudation)- Exceptions to S-Degemination: the rule does not apply when the morpheme ex- means ‘a person out of a formerly held position or office’ (e.g. ex-senator, ex-spouse)- Other affixes in -s: the rule applies to dis- (e.g. dis indefinite article a, [ə] (schwa) (e.g. aphasia, amorphous) (except when we put stress on the prefix, or want to emphasize the article a)- N-drop in other prefixes: the rule also applies to con- (if the following morpheme is vowel-initial, or if it begins with [h-]; e.g. con + ag + ulate -> coØagulate) and syn- (when the morpheme attaches to a morpheme which begins with [s] followed by another consonant; e.g. syn + st + (e)m -> syØstem)2. Vowel deletions2.1. V-drop in hiatus- Hiatus: a phonetic opening which occurs when two vowels are directly adjacent across a syllable boundary, with no consonant in between- As “Hiatus-avoidance” mechanism, V-drop (“vowel-drop”) is used in English (e.g. an + theo + ism -> atheØism; meta + onym + y -> metØonymy)- Exceptions exist as in epihyal, homohedral, deodorize, reinstate, and so forth2.2. Syllable syncopation- $ [V] + r + $ -> Ø (e.g. meter + ic -> metØric; anger + y -> angØry)- Preservation of and : the rule affects only unstressed syllables,

인문/어학| 2020.12.30| 5페이지| 2,000원| 조회(151)

음운규칙, 음운론, 형태소변화

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중세영어 및 초기현대영어에 관한 북챕터 요약

Summary of Chapters 6 ~ 8 of Algeo (2010)Chapter 6. The Middle English Period (1100-1500)- The beginning and ending of the Middle English period: grammatical changes in about 1100 and pronunciation changes in about 1500- The Normans invaded and conquered England => influenced a lot on English culture◎ The Reascendancy of English- Latin for the Church, Norman French for the government, and English for the majority of the country’s population (trilingual) => promoted the use of English by the fourteenth century◎ Foreign Influences on Vocabulary- Latin, Scandinavian, Dutch, and Flemish influenced on the English vocabulary, but the major new influence was French (the impact of the Norman Conquest) => intensified in Modern English (ex. “mercy” mildheortness in O.E. -> mercy in M.E.)◎ Middle English Spelling- ConsonantsA return to earlier conventions (ex. th -> þ and ð -> th; uu for [w] -> runic wynn -> w)French spelling conventions influenced on English spelling conventions (ex. f [v] -> v l together with short a and came to be written like it in Middle English- Changes in DiphthongsThe O.E. long diphthongs ēa and ēo underwent smoothing in late Old English times, becoming [ɛ:] and [e:] respectivelyIn late Middle English, the two diphthongs [aɪ] and [eɪ] fell together and became a single diphthongFour new diphthongs ending in the off-glide [ʊ]—[aʊ], [ɔʊ], [ɛʊ], and [ɪʊ]—also developed from Old English sourcesTwo Middle English diphthongs are of French origin, entering English in loanwords borrowed from the French-speaking conquerors of England- Lengthening and Shortening of VowelsOriginally short vowels were lengthened before mb, nd, ld, rd, and rð, but by the end of the Middle English period it was found only with i and o before mb; with i and u before nd; and generally before ldShort a, e, and o were lengthened when they were in open syllableLong vowels in syllables followed by certain consonant sequences were shortenedVowels in unstressed syllables were shortenedShorte English- Comparative and Superlative Adjectives: The O.E. comparative ending -ra became -re, later -er, and the superlative suffixes -ost and -est fell together as -est◎ Verbs- The distinction of strong and weak continued, but weak verbs outnumbered strong verbs. => the strong forms tended to disappear- Personal Endings: As unstressed vowels fell together, some of the distinctions in personal endings disappeared too- ParticiplesThe ending of the present participle varied from dialect to dialect (ex. -and(e) in the North, -ende or -ing(e) in the Midlands, and -inde or -ing(e) in the South)Past participles might or might not have the prefix i- (y-) (i.e. lost in many parts of England, but frequently occurred in the speech of London)◎ Word Order- Many possible variations occurred in extant Middle English literature (ex. object preceding the verb), but it was assumed that the word order was similar with the one in Modern EnglishChapter 7. The Early Modern English Period (1500-1800) – Socidle English diphthong [ʊɪ] was written oi rather than ui- Quantitative Vowel Changes: It includes the lengthening of an originally short vowel before voiceless fricative (ex. [æ] => [æ:]), but most forms of American English keep the unlengthened [æ]◎ Early Modern English Consonants- The consonants of English were also rather stable, though certain losses occurred within the period as a following few casesVoiceless palatal fricative [ç] disappeared entirelyVoiceless velar fricative [x], occurring next to back vowels, either disappeared (ex. taught, bought) or became [f] (ex. cough, enough)In the final sequence -mb, the b disappeared in pronunciationThe l of the Middle English preconsonantal al was lost after first becoming a vowelThe initial consonant sequences gn and kn lost their first elements by the early 17th centuryChapter 8. The Early Modern English Period (1500-1800) – Forms, Syntax, and Usage◎ The Study of Language- International, political, and cultural situations changed => Emplied a sense of one’s own importance- Relative and Interrogative Pronouns: The neuter demonstrative pronoun that was adapted => later the previously interrogative which was added => who also started to be used to refer to persons- Case Forms of the Pronouns: There was less concern than now with what are thought to be “proper” case forms◎ Verbs and Prepositions- Classes of Strong Verbs: They either joined the ranks of the weak verbs or were lost altogetherClass Ⅰ: The Modern English preterit from the old preterit singular (ex. drive-drove-driven; rise-rose-risen); the Modern English preterit from the old preterit plural (ex. bite-bit-bitten; chide-chid-chidden)Class Ⅱ: The Modern English preterit from the old past participle (ex. choose-chose-chosen; freeze-froze-frozen); some verbs of this class are now weak (ex. brew, chew)Class Ⅲ: The Modern English preterit from the old preterit singular (ex. begin-began-begun; ring-rang-rung), the Modern English preterit from the old preterit pluish

인문/어학| 2020.12.30| 10페이지| 2,000원| 조회(147)

요약, 중세영어, 초기현대영어

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영어의 역사 전반 및 고대영어에 관한 북챕터 요약

Summary of Chapters 4 ~ 5 of Algeo (2010); Chapter 2 of Stockwell & Mincova (2001)Chapter 4. The Backgrounds of English; Chapter 2. The Background of English- “Indo-European”, the source of most other European and many south-Asian languages◎ Indo-European Origins- On the basis of cognate words, we can infer a good deal about Indo-European culture (ex. mead, wheel; axle; yoke, pecuniary, fee, etc.)- The Indo-European homeland:we can never be sure of where it began, but has been identified with the Kurgan culture of mound builders who lived northwest of the Caucasus and north of the Caspian Sea -> expanded into the Balkans and northern Europe, and thereafter into Iran, Anatolia, and southern Europe- How Indo-European was discovered:some languages reveal similarities among them (ex. English father, Norwegians, Danish, and Swedish fader, Dutch vader, German Vater, …) => we needed some explanation of the resemblancesthe explanation that all those languages are historical developments of a nentalThe full array of cases is preserved in Sanskrit but not generally in the other descendant languages◎ Word Order in the Indo-European Languages- Winfred P. Lehmann suggested that Proto-Indo-European was an OV language (example below; Latin had the option of putting a conjunction after the second noun as in senatus populusque; Old English often used some words as postpositions)◎ Major Changes from Indo-European to Germanic- Germanic has a large number of words that have no known cognates in other Indo-European languages (ex. broad, drink, drive, fowl, hold, meat, rain, wife)- Germanic languages have only two tenses: the present and the preterit- Germanic developed a preterit tense form with a dental suffix (“weak”) alongside an older pattern of changing the vowels inside a verb (“strong”)- All the older forms of Germanic had two ways of declining their adjectives: the weak declension (adjectives with a definite noun) and the strong declension (adjectives without a definite article)re the changes occurred.- It developed into an independent language quite distinct from any Germanic language spoken on the Continent.Chapter 5. The Old English Period (449-1100)◎ History of the Anglo-Saxons- Britain before the EnglishA Celtic people had been in the island for many centuries in 55 B.C., and the Roman occupation begun about 43 A.D., but they allowed the Celts to speak their own language. However, after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, their language started to be threatened.- The coming of the EnglishThe Roman forces in the late fourth century included some Angles and Saxons brought from the Continent, but many of them came to the island when Britons called the Saxons for the aid later.By the time Saint Augustine arrived in Britain to convert them to Christianity at the end of the sixth century, the Anglo-Saxons dominated all of what is now known as England.- The English in BritainThe Germanic settlement comprised 7 kingdoms, the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy: Kent, Essex, Sussation varies depended on contiguous sounds (p. 87-89 in detail)- Handwriting: The Anglo-Saxons learned from the Irish to write in the Insular hand.- StressOld English words of more than one syllable were regularly stressed on the first syllables except verbs with prefixes.Compounds had the customary Germanic stress on the first syllable, with a secondary stress on the first syllable of their second element.◎ Vocabulary- The Germanic word stockDespite foreign influences, the word stock of Old English was more thoroughly Germanic.Some Modern English may have the same word forms with Old English, but some of their meanings changed drastically, and many of Old English words disappeared or replaced by other loanwords.- Gender in Old English: It had grammatical gender (i.e. masculine, feminine, neuter) in contrast to the Modern English system of natural gender◎ Grammar, Concord, and Inflection- InflectionOld English had far more inflection in nouns, adjectives, and demonstrative, and interrojectives and adverbs in Modern English are identicalOther case forms of nouns and adjectives (i.e. genitive and dative) might be used adverbially too-or was used as a comparative suffix while -ost or -est was used as a superlative suffix◎ Pronouns- There was the dual number system, but except that, many of pronoun systems were similar to Modern English (i.e. gender appeared only in the 3rd person singular form)- Hwā is the source of our who, hwām of whom, hwæt of what, hwӯ of why, and Hwone did not survive beyond the Middle English period◎ Verb- Old English verbs were either weak or strong, and also had a fair number of irregular verbs in both categories.- There were five verb system in present tense (infinitive, indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and participle) and three verb system in preterit tense (indicative, subjunctive, and past participle)- Indicative forms: Both preterit and present forms were used for making statements and asking questions- Subjunctive and imperative forms

인문/어학| 2020.12.30| 11페이지| 2,000원| 조회(140)

영어사, 고대영어, 영어역사

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