문화적 관점에서 본 전통 한국과 중국의 관료제 비교:조선조와 청조 (Comparison of the Traditional Bureaucracies of Korea and China from a Cultural Perspective: The Chosun and Ching Dynasties)

서지정보

· 발행기관 : 서울행정학회
· 수록지 정보 : 한국사회와 행정연구 / 22권 / 4호 / 441 ~ 471페이지
· 저자명 : 정하영

초록

본고는 문화론적 관점에서 조선조와 청조의 관료제를 분석하였다. 특히 제도와 관련된 사회문화적 배경을 분석하고, 현대와의 연속성을 시도하였다. 조선조와 청조 관료제의 공통점은 집권체제이고, 인정․체면․관계를 중시하고, 권한과 책임이 불일치하고, 자의적 권한을 행사하고, 승진에서 줄서기하고, 선물 및 뇌물 등의 부패 등 이다.


그러나 차이점도 존재한다. 첫째, 청조는 집권과 평균 체제이다. 황권을 강화하기 위해서 군기처를 두었고, 주접을 주로 활용하고, 간언 및 견제의 기능을 약화시키고, 신사를 통제하고, 과거제․근무평정․회피제 등을 실시하였다. 그러나 평균의 원리도 존재하고 있다. 당관과 독무의 권한 확대, 특히 독무가 정보․인사․재정(심지어 병권)을 장악하게 되어 행정구조가 분산적이고 독립적인 경향을 띠었다. 둘째, 실력(능력)주의이다. 과거급제에서 평민출신이 많고, 후보자를 선발하여 기층정부에서 훈련시켜 실무관료로 양성하고, 승진에서 경쟁을 시키고 이 과정에 ‘꽌시’가 작용하고 있었다. 그리고 상사와 부하 간에 비교적 평등한 경향을 지니었다. 셋째, 분열과 통합이다. 독무를 비롯한 지방권력의 확대, 신사의 사리추구, 평균적 문화, 관리들의 부정부패 등으로 인하여 분열이 되고, 또한 새로운 세력으로 통합되어 갔다.
조선조는, 첫째, 집권과 서열체제이다. 제도적으로 집권과 서열의 체제를 갖추고, 인사행정에서 과거제․겸임제․상피제․임기제․고과법 등을 통하여 중앙집권을 실시하였다. 그러나 조선은 국왕 일인에게 실질적인 권한이 집중되지 않는 반면에, 관료들에게 많은 권한이 주어지고, 언관권을 형성하여 왕권을 견제하기도 하였다. 그러나 견제와 조화라는 원리는 명분을 둘러싼 힘겨루기와 당쟁의 원인이 되기도 하였다. 둘째, 출신에 기반 한 서열관계이다. 양반의 세습, 출신지 차별, 과거급제자가 관료출신자제 및 특정가문에 편중되었다. 또한 천거제와 고과(포폄) 및 승진에서도 문벌과 당파의 영향을 받았다. 상사와 부하 간에 엄격한 서열체제가 이루어졌다. 셋째, 연고에 기반 한 우리주의이다. 선천적 출신에 기반하여 동질화와 차별화를 행하고, 분경 등이 있었다.

영어초록

This study analyzes the bureaucracies of the Chosun and Ching dynasties from a cultural perspective. In particular, it attempts to locate continuities with the present through analyzing the social and cultural backdrops of the respective systems. The commonalities between the Chosun and Ching Dynasties are that they are centralized systems, and both emphasize compassion, maintaining ‘face’ and relationships, misalign authority with responsibility, and may lead to corruption through pulling strings for promotion and the use of gifts and bribes.
However, differences do exist. First, the Ching dynasty was a system of centralization and equal shares. In order to consolidate the emperor’s power, Jun Ji Chu(軍機處) was established, secret messages sent to the emperor, functions of remonstrance and check were mitigated, Chinese Gentry(紳士) and scholars were controlled and a merit based civil service exam, and service checks and evasion policy were utilized. However, the principle of equal shares was upheld, and the authority of central and local bureaucrats was expanded. In particular, as local bureaucrats’(督撫) possessed intelligence, human resource and financial authority (including the military), the administration system became more distributed and independent. Secondly, the Ching Dynasty focused on capabilities. A large portion of those who passed the civil servant exam were commoners and a fixed portion were compulsorily allotted for the service check. Also candidates were selected to be trained as working bureaucrats and they were to compete with one another for promotion and in this process ‘guanxi’ took effect. Moreover, a degree of equality between the superior and the subordinate was visible. Third, processes of division and integration took place. The expansion of local authorities including the local bureaucracy, interest-seeking by Chinese Gentry, average culture, and corrupt officials prompted division and then integration under a new power.
As for the Chosun Dynasty, first of all, the system of centralization and rank prevailed. Centralized power and order was established systematically and implemented through personnel administration including the civil exam, systems allowing officials to take multiple positions and banning officials to be stationed at a specific location or take positions that they were affiliated with, term of position, evaluation of merits, and praise and censure. However, actual authority was not concentrated around the king, but instead, mostly endowed upon bureaucrats. Also the bureaucrats themselves used their rights of remonstrance to check the king. However, it took power struggle and dispute in order to justify a system of checks and balances. Secondly, a rank system based on ancestry was established. The rank of yangban was passed down and people were segregated according to where they came from. Also the people who passed the civil exam were mostly the children of bureaucrats or belonged to specific clans. In addition, lineage and faction took effect in the recommendation of candidates, evaluation of merits, and promotion. Homogenization and segregation based on ancestry(출신) prevailed and office hunting took place, while there was a stringent system of rank between superiors and subordinates.

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