中國 國體變革期 滿洲族 團體의 政治活動, 1901-1924 (The Political Activities of the Manchus Associations during National Polity Transformation In China, 1901-1924)

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초록

While the national polity(國體) of China underwent transformation from despotic monarchy into democratic republic around the Xinhai Revolution(辛亥革命), the overall Chinese society was drawn into the vortex was swept away by this transition to such an extent that caused some attempts to re-convert the national polity into a constitutional monarchy. This study, focusing on the period of transition, aims to analyze the political activities of Manchu organizations and examine their efforts to overcome unfolding crisis.
Amidst the crisis of national partition(瓜分) and expansion of revolutionary thoughts around the Russo-Japanese War(日俄戰爭), the Qing Dynasty(淸朝), in order to resolve these problems, came to seek a transition to constitutional monarchy. In the process of searching for a constitutional system appropriate to the reality of China, opinions arguing for the introduction of a monarch -centered constitutional system and a legislature-centered constitutional system, respectively emerged, with Manchu aristocrats(滿洲親貴) supporting the former and intellectuals and officials supporting the latter. As a result, in the end, the introduction of a monarch-centered constitutional system was decided on, and the legislation of a preliminary Constitution was declared in 1906. At the same time, the Qing Dynasty endeavored to resolve ethnic conflict, which was pointed out as a risk factor, by reducing privileges previously held by the Manchus through the elimination of the Manchu-Han Chinese distinction(平滿漢畛域) and granting legally equal status to various ethnic groups. In addition, it established organs such as the Banner Reorganization Office(變通旗制處) in an effort to enlighten and to prepare means of livelihood for the Manchus.
Besides the aristocrats, ordinary Manchus also stressed the need to establish self-help plans and to modernize by forming organizations and public opinion and proceeded with changes into citizens(公民) befitting a constitutional system. Some sympathized with the logic of the revolutionary forces led by Sun Yat-sen(孫文, 1866-1925), voluntarily participating in the revolutionary forces in arenas including Western-style schools(學堂), local community, and the New Army(新軍) and seeking independence from the Qing Dynasty and a transition to a new political system. However, this series of efforts failed to reap fruit and was ultimately frustrated with the success of the revolution.
With the success of the Xinhai Revolution, at a point when the national polity of China was changing into a republican system as symbolized by “five races under one union”(五族共和), the Manchus relinquished the status of the ruling ethnic group that they had maintained during their domination of the Qing Dynasty and were reorganized as “citizens of the Republic” or “members of the Chinese nation”(中華民族). The Manchus thus lost the social privileges that they had enjoyed as Bannermen(旗人, Qiren) earlier and had to strive to win rights equal to those of other ethnic groups, whom they had previously called the “subjects”(民人). However, because the change to the national polity stemming from the Xinhai Revolution came about through a compromise with the Qing Dynasty, the Beiyang Government(北洋政府) had no choice but to offer in part a preferential policy for the Manchus as symbolized by the condition of preferential treatment of the Qing imperial house.
Having thus possessed experience, status, and capacity as the existing ruling class in the process of non-violent modernization of the political system instead of a violent dynastic change, the Manchus created diverse organizations independently to find a way out for them. Manchu aristocrats also sought to stand as an independent force through cooperation with Japan, calling for the revival of the Qing Dynasty, implementation of constitutional monarchy, and independence of Manchuria and Mongolia, with a focus on the Imperial Clan Party(宗社黨). Due to the absence of an actual stronghold and changes in Japan’s foreign policies, however, such efforts bore no fruit. On the other hand, those Manchus who sought to conform to the republican political system, in response to the Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication(關於大淸皇帝辭位後優待之條件) of the Beiyang Government and the Revised Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Qing House(修正淸室優待條件) policy of the Feng Yuxiang(馮玉祥) government, worked in diverse ways to secure their political status and to resolve the problem of their livelihood, with the Manchu Mutual Advancement Society(滿族同進會) at the center. However, the Manchus gradually decreased in political and social influence due to the Beiyang Government’s policies to weaken them including the Banner land(旗地) confiscation policy and their own failure to turn into a political faction.
On the other hand, apart from the activities of the Imperial Clan Party, there arouse efforts to turn the republican system into constitutional monarchy during 1915-17. They were attempts by Yuan Shi-kai(袁世凱), President of the Republic of China, to crown himself emperor and by Zhang Xun(張勳) to restore imperial rule. These seem to offer the Manchus the possibility of a new way out. With the failure of the two attempts at reviving monarchical rule, however, the republican system firmly established itself as the trend of the times. In particular, with the dramatic emergence in 1924 of the Chinese Nationalist Party(國民黨), the outgrowth of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance(中國同盟會) whose forces had led the Xinhai Revolution, under the goal of completing the republican revolution, the Manchus’ troubles increased and led to the abolition of the preferential policy for them. Consequently, the Manchus sought to find a way out through activities for their rights and interests with a focus not so much on existing organizations but on small assemblies. Some endeavored to turn into an independent force by cooperating with Japan, especially through various Preservation Societies(維持會) founded in the Three Eastern Provinces(Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning), and establishing Manchukuo(滿洲國).
The significance of the present study lies in pointing out that such efforts of the Manchus at political self-help continued independently and continuously from the time of the late Qing reforms and examining in detail the divergence of the Manchus forces and ensuing activities.

영어초록

While the national polity(國體) of China underwent transformation from despotic monarchy into democratic republic around the Xinhai Revolution(辛亥革命), the overall Chinese society was drawn into the vortex was swept away by this transition to such an extent that caused some attempts to re-convert the national polity into a constitutional monarchy. This study, focusing on the period of transition, aims to analyze the political activities of Manchu organizations and examine their efforts to overcome unfolding crisis.
Amidst the crisis of national partition(瓜分) and expansion of revolutionary thoughts around the Russo-Japanese War(日俄戰爭), the Qing Dynasty(淸朝), in order to resolve these problems, came to seek a transition to constitutional monarchy. In the process of searching for a constitutional system appropriate to the reality of China, opinions arguing for the introduction of a monarch -centered constitutional system and a legislature-centered constitutional system, respectively emerged, with Manchu aristocrats(滿洲親貴) supporting the former and intellectuals and officials supporting the latter. As a result, in the end, the introduction of a monarch-centered constitutional system was decided on, and the legislation of a preliminary Constitution was declared in 1906. At the same time, the Qing Dynasty endeavored to resolve ethnic conflict, which was pointed out as a risk factor, by reducing privileges previously held by the Manchus through the elimination of the Manchu-Han Chinese distinction(平滿漢畛域) and granting legally equal status to various ethnic groups. In addition, it established organs such as the Banner Reorganization Office(變通旗制處) in an effort to enlighten and to prepare means of livelihood for the Manchus.
Besides the aristocrats, ordinary Manchus also stressed the need to establish self-help plans and to modernize by forming organizations and public opinion and proceeded with changes into citizens(公民) befitting a constitutional system. Some sympathized with the logic of the revolutionary forces led by Sun Yat-sen(孫文, 1866-1925), voluntarily participating in the revolutionary forces in arenas including Western-style schools(學堂), local community, and the New Army(新軍) and seeking independence from the Qing Dynasty and a transition to a new political system. However, this series of efforts failed to reap fruit and was ultimately frustrated with the success of the revolution.
With the success of the Xinhai Revolution, at a point when the national polity of China was changing into a republican system as symbolized by “five races under one union”(五族共和), the Manchus relinquished the status of the ruling ethnic group that they had maintained during their domination of the Qing Dynasty and were reorganized as “citizens of the Republic” or “members of the Chinese nation”(中華民族). The Manchus thus lost the social privileges that they had enjoyed as Bannermen(旗人, Qiren) earlier and had to strive to win rights equal to those of other ethnic groups, whom they had previously called the “subjects”(民人). However, because the change to the national polity stemming from the Xinhai Revolution came about through a compromise with the Qing Dynasty, the Beiyang Government(北洋政府) had no choice but to offer in part a preferential policy for the Manchus as symbolized by the condition of preferential treatment of the Qing imperial house.
Having thus possessed experience, status, and capacity as the existing ruling class in the process of non-violent modernization of the political system instead of a violent dynastic change, the Manchus created diverse organizations independently to find a way out for them. Manchu aristocrats also sought to stand as an independent force through cooperation with Japan, calling for the revival of the Qing Dynasty, implementation of constitutional monarchy, and independence of Manchuria and Mongolia, with a focus on the Imperial Clan Party(宗社黨). Due to the absence of an actual stronghold and changes in Japan’s foreign policies, however, such efforts bore no fruit. On the other hand, those Manchus who sought to conform to the republican political system, in response to the Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication(關於大淸皇帝辭位後優待之條件) of the Beiyang Government and the Revised Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Qing House(修正淸室優待條件) policy of the Feng Yuxiang(馮玉祥) government, worked in diverse ways to secure their political status and to resolve the problem of their livelihood, with the Manchu Mutual Advancement Society(滿族同進會) at the center. However, the Manchus gradually decreased in political and social influence due to the Beiyang Government’s policies to weaken them including the Banner land(旗地) confiscation policy and their own failure to turn into a political faction.
On the other hand, apart from the activities of the Imperial Clan Party, there arouse efforts to turn the republican system into constitutional monarchy during 1915-17. They were attempts by Yuan Shi-kai(袁世凱), President of the Republic of China, to crown himself emperor and by Zhang Xun(張勳) to restore imperial rule. These seem to offer the Manchus the possibility of a new way out. With the failure of the two attempts at reviving monarchical rule, however, the republican system firmly established itself as the trend of the times. In particular, with the dramatic emergence in 1924 of the Chinese Nationalist Party(國民黨), the outgrowth of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance(中國同盟會) whose forces had led the Xinhai Revolution, under the goal of completing the republican revolution, the Manchus’ troubles increased and led to the abolition of the preferential policy for them. Consequently, the Manchus sought to find a way out through activities for their rights and interests with a focus not so much on existing organizations but on small assemblies. Some endeavored to turn into an independent force by cooperating with Japan, especially through various Preservation Societies(維持會) founded in the Three Eastern Provinces(Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning), and establishing Manchukuo(滿洲國).
The significance of the present study lies in pointing out that such efforts of the Manchus at political self-help continued independently and continuously from the time of the late Qing reforms and examining in detail the divergence of the Manchus forces and ensuing activities.

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