朱子의 『孟子集註』에 보이는 ‘井田制’의 성격 (The Characteristics of the Well-Field System(井田制) in Zhu Xi’s Collected Commentaries on the Book of Mencius)

서지정보

· 발행기관 : 한국외국어대학교(글로벌캠퍼스) 역사문화연구소
· 수록지 정보 : 역사문화연구 / 32호 / 81 ~ 115페이지
· 저자명 : 이세영

초록

이 글은 17세기 중엽 이후 토지개혁방안으로서 정전제를 제안했던 韓泰東, 楊應秀, 徐命膺, 鄭志宬, 丁若鏞 등의 ‘井田制論’을 살펴보기 전에 우리나라 중세사회의 기본적인 토지소유관계인 ‘田主佃客制’와 ‘收租權的 土地支配’가 중국 고대의 殷·周代에서 실시되었다고 하는 ‘井田制’에서 비롯되었다고 보고, 그 ‘井田制’에 관한 기본문헌인 朱子의 『孟子集註』·『論語集註』등 속에서 ‘井田制’의 성격을 파악해 보고자 한 것이다.
孟子와 朱子는 ‘耕者 九一’(井田制)과 ‘仕者 世祿’(世祿制)을 ‘仁政’의 근본이라고 생각하였다. 모든 인민들은 ‘恒産’을 가지고 ‘恒心’을 유지하면서 편안하게 살아가고, 모든 仕者들은 世祿을 보장받음으로써 나라에 봉직하면서 걱정 없이 직무를 수행하는 사회가 바로 ‘仁政’이 실현되는 사회였다. 그리고 그들은 周代에 바로 이러한 ‘仁政’이 실현되었다고 생각하였다.
孟子의 傳聞과 朱子의 해석에 의하면, 殷·周나라에서는 井田制와 助法을 실시함으로써 ‘1井(630畝 혹은 900畝) 8家’를 한 단위로 하여 8家에게 1田(70畝 혹은 100畝)씩을 ‘私田’으로 분급하여 경작하게 하고 그 수입을 차지하게 하는 대신 1 田은 ‘公田’으로 하고 이를 8家가 공동경작하게 하여 그 수확을 8家의 세금으로 收租하였다. 이때 1家의 납세율은 1/10 수준이었다. 한편, 君·諸侯 이하 관직자들에게는 차등으로 일정 규모의 ‘公田’을 지급하고 그 수조액을 녹봉으로 대신하게 하였다. 즉, 국가의 수조권을 그 봉건지배층에게 양여하고 대대로 세습하도록 한 것이었다. 이러고 보면 井田制와 助法의 근본이념은 국가가 王土思想에 근거하여 농민들에게 자급자족할 수 있는 규모의 경작지를 확보해주어 자영농을 항상적으로 육성하고 유지시키는 한편 모든 경작지로부터 일정 비율의 생산물을 收租하는 것이었다. 그리고 이러한 井田制 아래의 기본적인 토지소유관계는 收租權者인 국가·봉건지배층과 納租者인 농민 사이에 성립되는 이른바 ‘田主-佃客’관계였으며, 국가는 전 국토에 대해 ‘수조권적 토지지배’를 행사하였다.
이러한 井田制는 춘추전국시대 이래 봉건지배층이 자신의 수조지와 농민들의 보유지를 사유화하고 겸병함으로써 붕괴되었다. 이제 농민들은 봉건지주층의 토지에서 강제적으로 노동하면서 노예와 같은 억압과 착취를 받는 생산노예로 전화하였다. 그러나 이내 지주계급의 봉건국가들은 변법 개혁을 통하여 ‘수조권적 토지지배’를 복구하고 유지시켰다. 즉 봉건국가는 지주계급과 자영농의 경지로부터 평시 총 수확의 ‘10분의 1’ 정도의 생산물을 수조하는 ‘수조권적 토지지배’를 계속 행사하였던 것이다.
이처럼 井田制와 助法에서 기원하는 ‘田主佃客制’와 ‘수조권적 토지지배’는 우리나라의 중세사회 전 기간에 걸쳐서 존속되었다. 즉 이는 국가의 田稅制度와 함께 신라통일기의 ‘官僚田制’와 ‘祿邑制’, 고려시기의 ‘田柴科制度’, 조선전기의 ‘科田法’과 ‘職田制’, 조선후기의 ‘折受制’ 등의 토지제도 등을 통해서 관철되고 있었던 것이다.

영어초록

This thesis is a preparatory work for elucidating the theories of “the Well-Field System (井田制, Jĭngtiánzhì, Jeongjeonje)” as a method of land reform suggested by Han Taedong, Yang Eungsu, Seo Myoungeung, Jeong Jiseong and Jeong Yagyong in the middle of the seventeenth century Korea. Looking upon, for this, the basic two land-owing systems during the medieval Korean society, “the Land Owner versus Leased-Land Tiller System (田主佃客制)” and “the Land Dominance by the Tax Collection Right (收租權的 土地支配),” as being originated from the Well-Field System in the ancient period of the Chinese Yin and Chou Dynasties, I examine the original form of the Well-Field System found Zhu Xi’s (朱熹) The Collected Commentaries on the Book of Mencius (『孟子集註』), one of the most basic texts regarding the Well-Field System.
Both Mencius and Zhu Xi thought that “one ninth for tillers (耕者九一, i.e., the Well-Field System)” and “hereditary stipend for gentries (仕者世祿, i.e., the Hereditary Stipend System)” were the foundation of “the governance of benevolence (仁政).” The society realizing the governance of benevolence makes all people live comfortably with “constant mind (恒心)” by “constant production (恒産)” and all gentries were granted to secure hereditary stipend to carry out their duties without any anxiety. Mencius and Chou Hsi regarded such a governance of benevolence had been realized during the period of Chou dynasty.
During the Yin and Chou dynasties, according to Mencius’ writings and Chu Hsi’s annotation, there was the taxing institution based on the Well-Field System, in which “one jĭng (630 or 900 mŭs) per eight families” constituted a basic unit and each of the eight families was granted one tián (70 or 90 mŭs) as “the private land”, tilled it, and took the products thereof. The rest one tián was tilled by the collaboration of the eight families and its products were took by the state as the common tax for the eight families. Here, the rate of tax payment for each family was about one tenth.
On the other hand, the gentry officers below the feudal princes as liege lords were granted “the official land” of some specific scale and took the products thereof as their stipend. That is, the state transferred the right of tax collection to gentry officers and let their right be transmitted through generations. As such, the fundamental purpose of the taxing institution based on the Well-Field System was to foster and sustain independent peasants by securing enough scale of lands for self-sufficiency upon the idea of the Righteous Government (王道) on the one hand, and to collect specific rate of the products as taxes from all the lands. And the relation of land ownership in the Well-Field System was the relation between the land owner and the leased-land tillers, i.e., the relation between the state of the feudal dominant class as the rightful tax collector and the peasants as the tax payers. And the state realized the Land Dominance by Tax Collection Right throughout the whole country.
The Well-Field System, however, was collapsed during and after the Age of Warring States, for the feudal dominant class privatized their lands for tax and appropriated peasants’ leased lands. As the result, peasants degenerated into producer slaves laboring compulsively on the tillage of the feudal land owners, being suppressed, and being exploited. Right after then, however, the feudal states of the land-owner class, reforming the land system, restored and maintained the Land Dominance by Tax Collection Right. That is, the feudal states continued the policy of the Land Dominance by Tax Collection Right, according to which the states collected about one tenth of the total products as tax from the tillage both of the land owners and of the independent peasants.
As such, the Land Owner versus Leased-Land Tiller System and the Land Dominance by Tax Collection Right were continued during the whole period of the medieval Korean society. That is, such system and dominance were continuously realized through the state institutions of taxation by means of various land systems such as the Gwanryojeon System (官僚田制) and the Nogeup System (祿邑制) in Unified Silla, Jeonsigwa System (田柴科制度) in Koryo, Gwajeon Law (科田法) and Jigjeon System (職田制) in the early period of Choseon, and Jeolsu System (折受制) in the late period of Choseon.

참고자료

· 없음