조선시대 韓中日 관계와 相互認識의 추이 (The Relationship Between Korea, China and Japan in the Era of Joseon Dynasty and Transitions of Their Mutual Perceptions)

서지정보

· 발행기관 : 인하대학교 한국학연구소
· 수록지 정보 : 한국학연구 / 57호 / 351 ~ 390페이지
· 저자명 : 한명기

초록

원대 이전까지 중국의 일본에 대한 인식은 긍정적이었다. 견당사 등으로 왔던 일본 관인, 승려들과의 접촉 경험을 통해 일본을 ‘예의지국’, ‘군자지국’으로 보았다. 하지만 왜구가 발호하면서 중국의 대일인식은 몹시 부정적으로 바뀐다. 조선도 14세기 중반 이후 극심한 왜구의 침략을 겪으면서 일본에 대한 부정적인 인식이 고조되었다. 15세기 회유책이 효과를 발휘하여 왜구가 잦아지면서 일본에 대한 인식은 바뀌는 조짐을 보인다. 그런데 조선은 大國으로 자처하면서 일본에 대해 문화적 우월감을 드러냈다.
조일 양국의 상호 인식과 태도를 규정하는 바탕에는 양국의 명에 대한 태도와 인식의 차이가 자리 잡고 있었다. 15~16세기 조선 지식인들은 명과의 빈번한 접촉과 친연성을 바탕으로 일본에 대한 우월의식을 드러냈다. 일본은 神國임을 내세우면서 명에 대해 맞서거나 사대를 거부하는 ‘자주적인’ 자세를 바탕으로 조선을 멸시하려고 덤볐다.
임진왜란을 계기로 조명관계에서는 전쟁 이전의 事大와 字小를 표방했던 ‘軟性的인 관계’가 사라졌다. 명은 왜란을 계기로 자신들의 안보가 위협받자 조선에 대해 거칠고 부정적인 태도와 인식을 드러냈다. 왜란 이후 조선은 명을 ‘再造의 恩人’으로, 일본을 ‘萬世의 怨讐’로 규정했다. 또 전쟁 기간 일본의 武力과 잔학함을 목도하면서 일본에 대한 두려움도 확실히 지니게 되었다.
정묘, 병자호란 이후 조선에서는 일본을 ‘원수’가 아니라 청에 맞서기 위해 협력해야 할 우방으로 여기는 인식이 싹텄다. 명 또한 청의 위협에 맞서 조선이 일본과 협력하여 청을 견제해 주기를 기대했다.
19세기 들어 일본에서는 정한론이 대두된다. 실제로 일본의 힘이 다시 커지고 조선에 대한 위협이 증대하면서 청의 위기의식도 고조된다. 운양호 사건, 임오군란을 겪으면서 청의 양무관료들은 조선을 구미 열강과 立約하도록 勸導하는 한편 조선을 직할령으로 통치해야 한다고 주장했다. 그 와중에 흥선대원군을 납치하고 조청상민수륙무역장정을 강압적으로 체결하고, 원세개의 독단적인 행보까지 더해지면서 19세기 후반 조선에서는 반청감정이 비등해질 수 있는 환경이 조성되었다.
명과 청은 조선을 ‘충순한 번국’이란 운운했지만 일본이 양국 관계에 끼어들 경우 조선에 대해 거칠고 강퍅한 태도와 부정적인 인식을 드러냈다. 15세기 명의 신료들이 조선과 일본의 접촉에 신경질적인 반응을 보였던 것, 임진왜란 시기 명군 지휘부가 조선에 대한 직할통치론을 주장했던 것, 임오군란 이후 청의 양무관료들이 조선을 속방으로 만들려고 했던 것 등이 그 생생한 실례였다.
1894년 청일전쟁을 계기로 조선에서는 排日, 斥日論이 확산되고 대다수 관료와 민인들이 청군의 승리를 전망하거나 희구했다. 청이 패하자 조선에서는 당혹감과 함께 청의 허약한 실상에 대한 객관적인 인식이 대두했다. 청의 지식인들도 패전을 계기로 일본을 배워야 한다는 인식이 확산되었다.
조선시대 한국인들의 중국 인식과 일본 인식은 ‘끼여 있는 존재’라는 한반도의 지정학적 조건과 안보 상황 속에서 형성되었다. 나아가 그것은 한반도를 둘러싼 중일 양국의 역학 관계의 추이를 비롯한 상황의 변화에 따라 서로 길항하고 연동되는 모습으로 나타나고 있었다.

영어초록

The three countries of Korea, China and Japan are often referred to as the “Chinese Character Culture Zone” and “Confucian Culture Zone” or “Sinosphere” to emphasize the cultural commonality of the three countries. However, in the past, the interactions and exchanges between the people of the three kingdoms were cut off. This was because all three countries strictly forbade the movement of their subjects between the respective countries. Under this restriction, it was impossible for the majority of the residents, except for the envoys, interpreters, and some merchants, to contact people in other countries.
The Chinese perception of Japan was positive before the advent of the Yuan Dynasty. Through contact with Japanese officials and monks who had been envoys, Japan was regarded as a “country of courtesy” and a “country of virtues”. However, Japanese pirates became a major problem for China by the end of the Yuan dynasty, China's perception of Japan became the opposite. The Joseon Dynasty in the late 14th century, also suffered heavily from frequent invasions of the Japanese pirates, started to regard the Japanese with contempt. This antagonistic sentiment is shown in the terms that were used to describe Japan such as “The Island Barbarians”, “The Japanese Enemy” and “The Wicked Scoundrels”. However, since the middle of the 15th century, the ensuing success of the policy of appeasement with the Japanese pirates and the resulting decrease of the invasions, the Korean perception of the Japanese changed, this time for the better. However, Joseon's attitude that they were a Great country and Japan was a subordinate nation continued as before.
Joseon Dynasty in the 15thcentury, had frequent contacts with the Japanese nation while concealing them from the paternal Ming dynasty. The Ming Dynasty did in fact were opposed to Joseon having communication with Japan. 15th to 16th century intellectuals of Joseon touted that Joseon was the “most loyal subjectnation” to the Ming Dynasty and the “honoured pupil of the Great Chinese Civilisation” therefore they treated Japan as “barbarians” and a “country yetto-be-reformed”. On the other hand, Japan asserted itself as a “God's nation”, and rejected being a tributary state to the Ming Dynasty and scorned the Joseon Dynasty. The geographical difference between Joseon and Japan in relation to China, that Joseon peninsula(the Korean peninsula) is attached to the Chinese continent and Japan is separated from the Asian mainland by ocean, caused the difference in their attitude and perception towards China and this furthermore affected the mutual perceptions they had of each other.
In the wake of the Japanese invasions of Korea (Imjin War 1592-1598) contacts between peoples of the three kingdoms increased explosively. First of all, after the war, the mutual perceptions of Joseon and Ming revealed a new face. As the military and geopolitical importance of Joseon emerged after the war, Ming recognised Joseon as their “front” and “defense base”. Ming pressured Joseon and even planned to colonise it. On the other hand, after the war, the Joseon Dynasty recognised the Ming Dynasty as “saviours” despite the serious havoc the military of Ming created in Joseon. But then, they perceived Japan as an “eternal enemy”. In addition, the Joseon Dynasty experienced the formidable prowess of the armed forces of Japan through the war which raised fears. It was through the Imjin War that hostility and fear toward Japan were made to coexist.
With the replacement of the Ming Dynasty with the Qing Dynasty, the mutual perceptions of Joseon and Ming, and Joseon's perception of Japan showed signs of change. In particular, through the Later Jin invasion of Joseon (Jeongmyo-Horan 1627) and the Qing invasion of Joseon (ByeongJa-Horan 1636-1637) their perception towards Japan showed sings of change. Some intellectuals began to perceive Japan as an ally to cooperate with in the fight against the “barbarian forces of Qing”, not “the eternal enemy” they once thought Japan was.
In the 19th century, the approaching threat of the West gave impetus to Japan's national defence efforts and they were of the opinion that Korea had to be conquered. Indeed, as Japan's power grew again, Qing's sense of crisis toward Japan also grew. In particular, some of Qing's officials who believed that Japan conquering Joseon would prove to be dangerous for Qing, argued that Joseon should be ruled directly. In 1882, during the riots of Joseon soldiers, Qing militarily intervened in the country, established military rule and attempted to make Korea a colony.
The situation changed after the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). Anti-Japanese sentiment spread in Joseon as Japan occupied the Gyeongbokgung Palace, oppressed peasant forces and attempted to colonise Joseon. During the war, the Qing Dynasty was overwhelmed in the face of the superior force of Japan, but many intellectuals in Joseon hoped for the victory of the Qing. However, when Qing was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War, Joseon through embarrassment was forced to recognise Qing's waning power over the East. Qing's intellectuals also recognised that through the loss of the war they were to learn from Japan.
In conclusion, Korean perceptions of the Japanese and of the Chinese during the era of Joseon Dynasty were formed under the geopolitical conditions and security conditions of the Korean Peninsula, which is sandwiched between the Chinese continent and the Japanese archipelago. And they appeared to antagonise or facilitate each other depending on the changes of relationship and situations between Korea and the two countries of China and Japan surrounding the Korean Peninsula.
mutual perceptions, “country of courtesy”, “country of virtues”, Japanese pirates, the “most loyal subjectnation” to the Ming Dynasty, Imjin War, “defense base”, “the eternal enemy”, the Later Jin invasion of Joseon, ‘the situation sandwiched between the Chinese continent and the Japanese archipelago’

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