몽골제국의 ‘울루스 체제’의 형성 (The Formation of the ‘Ulus System’ in the Mongol Empire)

서지정보

· 발행기관 : 동양사학회
· 수록지 정보 : 동양사학연구 / 131호 / 333 ~ 386페이지
· 저자명 : 김호동

초록

This article argues that the ‘ulus system’ is the basic principle of the formation of the Mongol empire and it analyzes and explains how this system came into being and developed.
Before the rise of Chinggis Khan there existed a number of political groups called ulus in Mongolia such as the Kereit, Naiman, Merkit, Mongols, etc. When he unified the nomads in the region under his rule, all the other uluses, except for the Mongol Ulus, disapp.eared, and by 1211 it began to be called ‘Yeke Mongol Ulus’. However, right after the unification, this single ulus was partitioned into several uluses due to Chinggis Khan’s allotment of people among his sons and brothers. Until now scholars tend to regard that there were three western uluses (Jöchi, Chaghadai, Ögödei) and three eastern uluses (Qasar, Qachi’un, Otchigin). Of course, Chinggis Khan himself took control ofthe center called ‘γol-un ulus’, i.e. the central ulus. However, this perception is based on Rashid al-Din’s description of Chinggis Khan’s allotment, which is heavily influenced by the Toluid ideology and thus whose veracity is seriously doubtable. In this regard various reports indicate that The SecretHistory of the Mongols transmits a more reliable information,which conclusively proves the existence of nine uluses; four each in the east and the west, and one at the center. To the list enumerated above we should add Tolui and Belgütei. So right after the unification the Mongol ulus system was established with its tripartite division including altogether nine uluses under its umbrella.
However, the Mongol ulus system was not a static but a dynamic system. The changes took place in two spheres; the movement and exapansion of the uluses and the re-division of ulus into smaller units. The movement and relocation of uluses were inevitable because of the expansion of the empire following the successive campaigns which brought the Mongols to the Mediterranean Sea and the Qipchaq Stepp.e. The three western uluses, except for that of Tolui, the youngest son, whose app.anage remained in Mongolia, were moved further to the west from their original abodes around the Altai Mountains. Thus, as we found in Juvayni’s work, the Ögödeids were in the region of Emil and Qobaq, the Chaghadaids in Uighuristan and Samarqand, and the Jöchids in the region of Khwarezm, Saqsin and Bulghar. Nevertheless, the eastern uluses did not move because there was no exapansion to the easterly direction. The second change in the Mongol ulus system, i.e. the sub-division of the primary uluses into several secondary uluses, took place because of the Mongol custom of inheritance; especially powerful was the concept among the Chinggisids that the Mongol ulus, i..e the Mongol people, was their common property and should be fairly allotted among the family members. So the Jöchi Ulus was divided into three or four uluses, and the uluses of Chaghadai and Ögödei were also divided among their descendants. Although we are not able to determine the exact number of these secondary ulues, there is no doubt that this phenomenon of secondary division was ubiquitous.
As a result, the Yeke Mongol Ulus, the only one ulus in Mongolia after Chinggis Khan’s unification, came to be divided into nine primary uluses and more numerous secondary uluses. The Mongol empire became a conglomeration of multilayered uluses. The interactions of these uluses – competition, alliance and annexation – has a fundamental importance in understanding the history of the Mongol empire, and it will be the subject of the upcoming article.

영어초록

This article argues that the ‘ulus system’ is the basic principle of the formation of the Mongol empire and it analyzes and explains how this system came into being and developed.
Before the rise of Chinggis Khan there existed a number of political groups called ulus in Mongolia such as the Kereit, Naiman, Merkit, Mongols, etc. When he unified the nomads in the region under his rule, all the other uluses, except for the Mongol Ulus, disapp.eared, and by 1211 it began to be called ‘Yeke Mongol Ulus’. However, right after the unification, this single ulus was partitioned into several uluses due to Chinggis Khan’s allotment of people among his sons and brothers. Until now scholars tend to regard that there were three western uluses (Jöchi, Chaghadai, Ögödei) and three eastern uluses (Qasar, Qachi’un, Otchigin). Of course, Chinggis Khan himself took control ofthe center called ‘γol-un ulus’, i.e. the central ulus. However, this perception is based on Rashid al-Din’s description of Chinggis Khan’s allotment, which is heavily influenced by the Toluid ideology and thus whose veracity is seriously doubtable. In this regard various reports indicate that The SecretHistory of the Mongols transmits a more reliable information,which conclusively proves the existence of nine uluses; four each in the east and the west, and one at the center. To the list enumerated above we should add Tolui and Belgütei. So right after the unification the Mongol ulus system was established with its tripartite division including altogether nine uluses under its umbrella.
However, the Mongol ulus system was not a static but a dynamic system. The changes took place in two spheres; the movement and exapansion of the uluses and the re-division of ulus into smaller units. The movement and relocation of uluses were inevitable because of the expansion of the empire following the successive campaigns which brought the Mongols to the Mediterranean Sea and the Qipchaq Stepp.e. The three western uluses, except for that of Tolui, the youngest son, whose app.anage remained in Mongolia, were moved further to the west from their original abodes around the Altai Mountains. Thus, as we found in Juvayni’s work, the Ögödeids were in the region of Emil and Qobaq, the Chaghadaids in Uighuristan and Samarqand, and the Jöchids in the region of Khwarezm, Saqsin and Bulghar. Nevertheless, the eastern uluses did not move because there was no exapansion to the easterly direction. The second change in the Mongol ulus system, i.e. the sub-division of the primary uluses into several secondary uluses, took place because of the Mongol custom of inheritance; especially powerful was the concept among the Chinggisids that the Mongol ulus, i..e the Mongol people, was their common property and should be fairly allotted among the family members. So the Jöchi Ulus was divided into three or four uluses, and the uluses of Chaghadai and Ögödei were also divided among their descendants. Although we are not able to determine the exact number of these secondary ulues, there is no doubt that this phenomenon of secondary division was ubiquitous.
As a result, the Yeke Mongol Ulus, the only one ulus in Mongolia after Chinggis Khan’s unification, came to be divided into nine primary uluses and more numerous secondary uluses. The Mongol empire became a conglomeration of multilayered uluses. The interactions of these uluses – competition, alliance and annexation – has a fundamental importance in understanding the history of the Mongol empire, and it will be the subject of the upcoming article.

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