여말선초 명(明)의 예제(禮制)와 지방 성황제(城隍祭) 재편 (Rearrangement of the local Seonghwang-je/城隍祭 services during the transitional period between Goryeo and Joseon dynasties, and the ritual protocols of the Chinese Ming/明 dynasty)

서지정보

· 발행기관 : 한국역사연구회
· 수록지 정보 : 역사와 현실 / 72호 / 207 ~ 251페이지
· 저자명 : 최종석

초록

The modifications made to the Seonghwang-je services during the transitional period between Goryeo and Joseon dynasties, were arranged out of a strong denial(negation) of the existing community-wide Seonghwang-je practices that had been led by the local influentials(Hyangri) and conducted as an official function. Such modification opted to establish the Ming dynasty's local Seonghwang protocols(which were developed by the founder of the Ming dynasty and were new ones even in China as well) as the legitimate and main protocols(正祀) for the Seonghwang-je practice in Joseon. This task of modification began in 1392, the first year of king Taejo’s reign, and continued during the early days of the Joseon dynasty, motivated by considerable changes in environment that involved the Seonghwang-je practice and took place during the ending days of the Goryeo dynasty.
In July 1370(19th year of king Gongmin-wang's reign), Ming's imperial edict was sent to the Goryeo government. This edict was originally issued earlier in June the same year, and contained Ming government's order (for the Goryeo dynasty) to get rid of the existing practice of bestowing titles(封號), and the renaming of various entities, like natural geographic figures(mountains and streams) and the Seonghwang figures(嶽鎭海凟城隍諸神). Regarding the local Seonghwang figures' titles, it was ordered only to name them with administratively discerning titles and with no other bestowed titles whatsoever. Due to this new protocol, special occasions in which certain Seonghwang figures from several regions which were acknowledged with their own miraculous qualities were exceptionally given with official titles and registered in the memorial service roster(祀典), ceased to exist. And the dynastic service roster came to show no local Seonghwang figures registered.
This renaming of the Seonghwang figures was an attempt of negating and dismantling the existing mentality toward Seonghwang figures and the religious customs that involved them. Ming dynasty was strongly urging Goryeo to do so, and the reason that Ming tried to bring modifications to even the Goryeo dynasty's memorial services for the mountains and streams, was because it developed a new kind of perception toward the natural figures not only in China but also inside adjacent subordinate states(藩屬國). Ming considered the mountains and streams in countries that pledged loyalty as a vassal(臣附) to China, as entities the very same with China's own mountains and streams. In other words, Ming considered them all objects of memorial services that should be held, carried and overseen by the emperor himself. This perception was indeed a new one, and was essentially extending the ceremonial and ritual protocols of the master country(천자국) to the vassal states, opening a new chapter in the sino-centered traditional order. Ming dynasty's order to Goryeo to change its own internal practices and protocols was to urge the Goryeo people to observe and abide by this universal cause, and relevant course of actions.
Yet, on the other hand, apparently Goryeo as a whole was not that acceptive to this kind of urging. The environment was not so welcoming to such demand. The order itself, and the Neo-Confucian nuances and aspiration embedded inside that order should have been warmly considered by the newcomer Goryeo scholar-officials of the time(both philosophically and epistemologically). Those Goryeo scholar-officials must have perceived Ming's order not as a threatening display of force but as a suggestion of a course of action based upon universal order and ritual protocols. Yet, there is no concrete reference to Goryeo people's acceptance and compliance to such order, and it seems that was because of the ever changing political landscape of the Goryeo dynasty at the time, which was witnessing the assassination of king Gongmin-wang and the killing of a Ming emissary that ensued, events that must have made it difficult for the scholar-officials to act upon their own ideals.
In order for the acception of Ming dynasty’s ritual protocols that involved the local Seonghwang-je practice to go forward, a new momentum was needed, and the political changes that were brought about by Yi Seong Gyae's troops' return from Wihwa-do, the foundation of the new dynasty and subsequent changes that occurred inside the political arena, provided such needed momentum. In August the first year of king Taejo's reign, right after the dynasty's foundation, Jo Bak and others proposed that the overall Seonghwang ritual protocols should be modified based upon the Hongmu ritual protocols. Such proposal was accepted and began to be implemented. In other words, the Seonghwang-je practice started to be modified since fairly early on in Joseon's history. This embracement and implementation of a new ‘official’ Seonghwang-je system based upon the Ming protocols, was a discontinuation of the Goryeo dynasty's Seonghwang-je practice, a denial of the existing customs and protocols developed in the local areas, an acception of totally different and alien protocols, an embracement of a new perspective toward the mountains and streams(including the Seonghwang figures) that was newly perpetuated by the Ming dynasty, and a total reworking of the past order and mentality, sponsored by no other than the dynastic government itself. This task of modification, was proceeding upon the Joseon leadership's discourse of aiming for a universal (sino-centered) order, and also upon an effort of reaching that status by accepting and embracing the 'Institutions of the Time(時王之制)’. Because of this specific nature of the Seonghwang-je practice modification, new official services were being held since king Taejo’s first year, yet some of the elements that directly collided and clashed with previous customs and perspectives were not that well observed, not to mention performed. Placing names and tablets were such examples, and supplemental orders continued to be issued during the reigns of kings Taejong and Sejong, until the 19th year of the latter king's reign.
The task that accompanied the aforementioned Seonghwang-je modification, was the task of removing some of the local Seonghwang figures that were earlier registered in the dynastic roster of service from the roster, and reestablish them in a unilateral order of local Seonghwang figures. King Taejo already listened to such suggestions, but it was in the 9th year of king Taejong's reign that such suggestions were actually implemented. As a result, most of the local Seonghwang figures that had been registered upon the roster since the Goryeo dynasty period were all excluded from the roster, and became objects not of dynastic services(國祭) but of services held by the officials in charge of the region the Seonghwang figures were located in. Yet, even after this, some of the Seonghwang figures that had connections to founder king Taejo continued to be served as objects of dynastic services, and the task of rearranging them in a monotonous fashion was naturally delayed, until the reign of king Seongjong. Seongjong's era is what seems to have been the turning point for a new era that no longer required dynastic intervention to ensure the new Seonghwang order.
In the meantime, bringing a new order to the existing Seonghwang customs even in terms of the format of the structures and the location of sites(altars), started during the reign of Sejong as well. But instances in which the existing Seonghwang-sa altars were dismantled and new ones established in different locations(‘廢祠設壇’) only occurred very scarcely during the early half of the Joseon period. Such process accelerated only in the latter half of the dynasty. This shows that the new order involving the structure and location of the Seonghwang figures only started to change in the later days of the dynasty, unlike the Seonghwang-je order itself.

영어초록

The modifications made to the Seonghwang-je services during the transitional period between Goryeo and Joseon dynasties, were arranged out of a strong denial(negation) of the existing community-wide Seonghwang-je practices that had been led by the local influentials(Hyangri) and conducted as an official function. Such modification opted to establish the Ming dynasty's local Seonghwang protocols(which were developed by the founder of the Ming dynasty and were new ones even in China as well) as the legitimate and main protocols(正祀) for the Seonghwang-je practice in Joseon. This task of modification began in 1392, the first year of king Taejo’s reign, and continued during the early days of the Joseon dynasty, motivated by considerable changes in environment that involved the Seonghwang-je practice and took place during the ending days of the Goryeo dynasty.
In July 1370(19th year of king Gongmin-wang's reign), Ming's imperial edict was sent to the Goryeo government. This edict was originally issued earlier in June the same year, and contained Ming government's order (for the Goryeo dynasty) to get rid of the existing practice of bestowing titles(封號), and the renaming of various entities, like natural geographic figures(mountains and streams) and the Seonghwang figures(嶽鎭海凟城隍諸神). Regarding the local Seonghwang figures' titles, it was ordered only to name them with administratively discerning titles and with no other bestowed titles whatsoever. Due to this new protocol, special occasions in which certain Seonghwang figures from several regions which were acknowledged with their own miraculous qualities were exceptionally given with official titles and registered in the memorial service roster(祀典), ceased to exist. And the dynastic service roster came to show no local Seonghwang figures registered.
This renaming of the Seonghwang figures was an attempt of negating and dismantling the existing mentality toward Seonghwang figures and the religious customs that involved them. Ming dynasty was strongly urging Goryeo to do so, and the reason that Ming tried to bring modifications to even the Goryeo dynasty's memorial services for the mountains and streams, was because it developed a new kind of perception toward the natural figures not only in China but also inside adjacent subordinate states(藩屬國). Ming considered the mountains and streams in countries that pledged loyalty as a vassal(臣附) to China, as entities the very same with China's own mountains and streams. In other words, Ming considered them all objects of memorial services that should be held, carried and overseen by the emperor himself. This perception was indeed a new one, and was essentially extending the ceremonial and ritual protocols of the master country(천자국) to the vassal states, opening a new chapter in the sino-centered traditional order. Ming dynasty's order to Goryeo to change its own internal practices and protocols was to urge the Goryeo people to observe and abide by this universal cause, and relevant course of actions.
Yet, on the other hand, apparently Goryeo as a whole was not that acceptive to this kind of urging. The environment was not so welcoming to such demand. The order itself, and the Neo-Confucian nuances and aspiration embedded inside that order should have been warmly considered by the newcomer Goryeo scholar-officials of the time(both philosophically and epistemologically). Those Goryeo scholar-officials must have perceived Ming's order not as a threatening display of force but as a suggestion of a course of action based upon universal order and ritual protocols. Yet, there is no concrete reference to Goryeo people's acceptance and compliance to such order, and it seems that was because of the ever changing political landscape of the Goryeo dynasty at the time, which was witnessing the assassination of king Gongmin-wang and the killing of a Ming emissary that ensued, events that must have made it difficult for the scholar-officials to act upon their own ideals.
In order for the acception of Ming dynasty’s ritual protocols that involved the local Seonghwang-je practice to go forward, a new momentum was needed, and the political changes that were brought about by Yi Seong Gyae's troops' return from Wihwa-do, the foundation of the new dynasty and subsequent changes that occurred inside the political arena, provided such needed momentum. In August the first year of king Taejo's reign, right after the dynasty's foundation, Jo Bak and others proposed that the overall Seonghwang ritual protocols should be modified based upon the Hongmu ritual protocols. Such proposal was accepted and began to be implemented. In other words, the Seonghwang-je practice started to be modified since fairly early on in Joseon's history. This embracement and implementation of a new ‘official’ Seonghwang-je system based upon the Ming protocols, was a discontinuation of the Goryeo dynasty's Seonghwang-je practice, a denial of the existing customs and protocols developed in the local areas, an acception of totally different and alien protocols, an embracement of a new perspective toward the mountains and streams(including the Seonghwang figures) that was newly perpetuated by the Ming dynasty, and a total reworking of the past order and mentality, sponsored by no other than the dynastic government itself. This task of modification, was proceeding upon the Joseon leadership's discourse of aiming for a universal (sino-centered) order, and also upon an effort of reaching that status by accepting and embracing the 'Institutions of the Time(時王之制)’. Because of this specific nature of the Seonghwang-je practice modification, new official services were being held since king Taejo’s first year, yet some of the elements that directly collided and clashed with previous customs and perspectives were not that well observed, not to mention performed. Placing names and tablets were such examples, and supplemental orders continued to be issued during the reigns of kings Taejong and Sejong, until the 19th year of the latter king's reign.
The task that accompanied the aforementioned Seonghwang-je modification, was the task of removing some of the local Seonghwang figures that were earlier registered in the dynastic roster of service from the roster, and reestablish them in a unilateral order of local Seonghwang figures. King Taejo already listened to such suggestions, but it was in the 9th year of king Taejong's reign that such suggestions were actually implemented. As a result, most of the local Seonghwang figures that had been registered upon the roster since the Goryeo dynasty period were all excluded from the roster, and became objects not of dynastic services(國祭) but of services held by the officials in charge of the region the Seonghwang figures were located in. Yet, even after this, some of the Seonghwang figures that had connections to founder king Taejo continued to be served as objects of dynastic services, and the task of rearranging them in a monotonous fashion was naturally delayed, until the reign of king Seongjong. Seongjong's era is what seems to have been the turning point for a new era that no longer required dynastic intervention to ensure the new Seonghwang order.
In the meantime, bringing a new order to the existing Seonghwang customs even in terms of the format of the structures and the location of sites(altars), started during the reign of Sejong as well. But instances in which the existing Seonghwang-sa altars were dismantled and new ones established in different locations(‘廢祠設壇’) only occurred very scarcely during the early half of the Joseon period. Such process accelerated only in the latter half of the dynasty. This shows that the new order involving the structure and location of the Seonghwang figures only started to change in the later days of the dynasty, unlike the Seonghwang-je order itself.

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