The Teachers Grammar of English TG 요약정리본 / Chapter 5. Negation

The Teacher's Grammar of English TG 요약정리본 / Chapter 5. Negation

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1. Two Forms of Negation

Affirmative and negative sentences can be formed in different ways, including using auxiliary verbs, the copular verb 'be', and sentences without an auxiliary verb or 'be'. Negative sentences can be formed by adding 'not' or a contracted negative form.
2. Verbal Negation

Verbal negation involves negating the verb in a sentence. This can be done with primary verb negation using auxiliary verbs, the copular verb 'be', or sentences without an auxiliary verb. Secondary verb negation is used to negate a clause with a verb in its infinitive, bare infinitive, present participle, or past participle form.
3. Negative/Positive Polarity Items

Negative polarity items like 'any' can only appear in negative statements, while positive polarity items like 'some' can only appear in affirmative statements. There are also words that have no corresponding positive or negative polarity item.
4. Negative Raising (Transferred Negation)

Certain verbs like 'think', 'believe', and 'appear' can transfer the negation from the main clause to the subordinate clause, changing the meaning.
5. Multiple Negation

Using multiple negatives in a sentence can result in an affirmative meaning. The scope of negation can also change the meaning of a sentence.
6. Nonverbal Negation

Negation can also be expressed using negative words like 'no', 'nobody', 'nothing', etc. rather than negating the verb. 'Double negatives' with negative words are also discussed.
7. Not in Nonverbal Negation

The word 'not' can be used in nonverbal negation before quantifiers, adjectives, and adverbs to express different meanings.
8. Negative Affixes

Adjectives with negative prefixes like 'un-' or 'in-' can be used to express nonverbal negation.

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1. Two Forms of Negation

The two main forms of negation in natural language are verbal negation, where the negation is expressed through a negative word or particle, and nonverbal negation, where the negation is expressed through other linguistic means such as affixes, lexical items, or contextual cues. Both forms of negation play important roles in conveying meaning and shaping discourse. Verbal negation is more overt and direct, while nonverbal negation can be more subtle and context-dependent. Understanding the nuances of these two forms of negation is crucial for effective communication and linguistic analysis.
2. Verbal Negation

Verbal negation is the most straightforward and common way to express negation in natural language. It involves the use of negative words or particles, such as 'not', 'no', 'never', 'neither', and 'nor', to directly negate a proposition or statement. Verbal negation can take different forms, such as sentential negation (e.g., 'I did not go to the party'), constituent negation (e.g., 'I went to the party, not the concert'), and negative quantifiers (e.g., 'No one came to the party'). The placement and scope of the negative element can significantly impact the meaning and interpretation of the utterance. Mastering the use of verbal negation is essential for clear and effective communication.
3. Negative/Positive Polarity Items

Negative and positive polarity items (NPIs and PPIs) are linguistic elements that are sensitive to the presence or absence of negation or other semantic and pragmatic factors. NPIs, such as 'any', 'ever', and 'lift a finger', are typically licensed in negative or downward-entailing contexts, while PPIs, such as 'some' and 'already', are generally incompatible with negation. The distribution and behavior of these polarity-sensitive items are complex and can vary across languages, dialects, and contexts. Understanding the nuances of NPIs and PPIs is crucial for accurately interpreting and producing natural language, as well as for developing robust natural language processing systems.
4. Negative Raising (Transferred Negation)

Negative raising, also known as transferred negation, is a linguistic phenomenon where the negation appears to be 'raised' from a subordinate clause to the main clause. For example, in the sentence 'I don't think he's coming', the negation 'not' is interpreted as applying to the subordinate clause 'he's coming' rather than the main clause 'I think'. This type of negation transfer can have significant implications for the meaning and interpretation of the utterance. Negative raising is a complex and often debated topic in linguistics, with various theories and analyses proposed to explain its underlying mechanisms and constraints. Understanding negative raising is crucial for accurately interpreting natural language and for developing robust natural language processing systems.
5. Multiple Negation

Multiple negation, also known as 'double negation' or 'negative concord', refers to the use of more than one negative element within a single sentence or clause. In some languages, such as English, the use of multiple negatives typically results in a single, reinforced negation (e.g., 'I didn't see nothing' is interpreted as 'I didn't see anything'). In other languages, such as some varieties of Spanish or Russian, multiple negatives can be used to express a single negation (e.g., 'No vi nada' in Spanish, which literally translates to 'I didn't see nothing' but is interpreted as 'I didn't see anything'). The rules and patterns governing multiple negation can be complex and vary across languages, dialects, and registers. Studying multiple negation is important for understanding the nuances of natural language and for developing accurate natural language processing systems.
6. Nonverbal Negation

Nonverbal negation refers to the expression of negation through means other than the use of negative words or particles. This can include the use of affixes (e.g., the prefix 'un-' in 'unhappy'), lexical items (e.g., 'lack', 'absence'), or contextual cues (e.g., body language, tone of voice). Nonverbal negation can be more subtle and context-dependent than verbal negation, and it can play an important role in shaping meaning and discourse. Understanding the various forms and functions of nonverbal negation is crucial for accurate linguistic analysis and effective communication, as well as for developing robust natural language processing systems that can handle the nuances of negation in natural language.
7. Not in Nonverbal Negation

The use of the word 'not' in nonverbal negation is a complex and interesting linguistic phenomenon. In some cases, 'not' can be used to negate a nonverbal element, such as a gesture or a facial expression. For example, the phrase 'not a smile' can be used to indicate the absence of a smile, even without the use of a verbal negation. However, the use of 'not' in nonverbal negation is not always straightforward, and it can be influenced by various contextual and pragmatic factors. Studying the role of 'not' in nonverbal negation can provide valuable insights into the interplay between verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as the ways in which negation is expressed and interpreted in natural language.
8. Negative Affixes

Negative affixes are morphological elements that can be added to words to express negation or the opposite of the base word. Examples of negative affixes include the prefixes 'un-', 'dis-', 'in-', 'non-', and 'anti-', as well as the suffixes '-less' and '-free'. The use of negative affixes is a common way to express nonverbal negation in many languages. Negative affixes can be highly productive, allowing for the creation of new words that convey negation or opposition. Understanding the role and behavior of negative affixes is crucial for accurately analyzing and interpreting natural language, as well as for developing effective natural language processing systems that can handle the complexities of negation in word formation.