권력ㆍ지성ㆍ신앙의 交應 ― 안사의 난 이후 雙忠 기억의 형성과 전개 ― (The Interaction of Power, Intellect, and Faith — The Formation and Evolution of the Memory of the “Two Loyal Martyrs[雙忠]” After the An Lushan Rebellion —)

서지정보

· 발행기관 : 동양사학회
· 수록지 정보 : 동양사학연구 / 169호 / 81 ~ 133페이지
· 저자명 : 김상범

초록

This study traces the formation and transformation of historical memory associated with “meritorious subjects” in the process of restoring order and rebuilding the state after the An Lushan Rebellion, focusing on the Battle of Suiyang, which involved Zhang Xun (張巡) and Xu Yuan (許遠), later referred to as the “Two Loyal Martyrs” (雙忠). Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan were prominent figures who fiercely resisted An Lushan's rebel forces in the Suiyang(睢陽) region of Henan during the early stages of the rebellion. Suiyang was a strategic stronghold connected to the Jianghuai region, which was emerging as a vital granary at the time. Consequently, the rebels dedicated significant effort to capturing Suiyang, launching all-out assaults with an army of 130,000, including elite cavalry comprised of Sogdians, Tongluo, Turks, and Khitans. Throughout the rebellion, a significant number of major Tang officials and generals defected to the rebels. However, despite being isolated and cut off from government support, Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan defended Suiyang for over ten months. Behind this prolonged resistance lay a darker reality: the majority of soldiers and civilians perished, food supplies were depleted early on, and 20,000 to 30,000 elderly and women were sacrificed as substitutes for military provisions in an act of cannibalism.
As the rebellion was quelled and the provincial military governance system(藩鎮體制)emerged, the Tang court, seeking to restore its authority and secure popular support, initiated widespread pardons and rewards. During this period, Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan became symbols of “loyalty and righteousness” embodying those who willingly sacrificed their lives to protect the state and sovereign. In the reign of Emperor Dezong(德宗), when the policy of reducing military provinces was fully pursued, they were elevated as the foremost meritorious figures of the An Lushan Rebellion. During Emperor Xuanzong(宣宗)'s era, portraits of these loyal subjects, including Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan, were enshrined in the Lingyan Pavilion(凌煙閣), a space dedicated to commemorating those who had made significant contributions to the state.
Following the fall of Suiyang, intellectuals also evaluated Zhang Xun, Xu Yuan, and the Battle of Suiyang. Sharp criticisms arose, including accusations that Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan eventually surrendered, condemnation of their reckless strategies, and ethical objections to the cannibalism of vulnerable individuals. When these discussions escalated into the contentious issue of cannibalism, seven prominent intellectuals of the time defended Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan in unison, emphasizing the strategic importance and significance of the Battle of Suiyang. Li Han(李翰), a leading intellectual and friend of Zhang Xun who had witnessed the battle firsthand, composed The Biography of Zhang Xun of Tang(張中丞傳) and presented it to Emperor Suzong(肅宗). Fifty years after their martyrdom, in 807, Han Yu(韓愈), a figure regarded as marking a turning point in Tang intellectual history, authored The Postscript to the Biography of Zhang Xun of Tang(張中丞傳後序). During the reign of Emperor Xianzong(憲宗), amidst efforts to consolidate the central authority, Han Yu praised the sacrifice of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” as a public act that preserved the realm, safeguarding the Jianghuai granary and providing a financial foundation for the Tang dynasty's resurgence. Amidst the long-term crisis posed by the provincial military system, the memory of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” gradually evolved, as state power and private intellectuals interacted to diminish the negative aspects of their legacy and reframe them as paragons of loyalty and righteousness.
In December 757, Emperor Suzong commemorated the recapture of the capital Chang’an with a general amnesty and rewards for meritorious figures. As part of these celebrations, a shrine was established near Suiyang to honor the martyrdom of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan, where regular rituals were conducted. State-led ceremonies centered on this shrine, known as the “Twin Shrine(雙廟)” and later, local officials established similar shrines during the Song dynasty. The cult of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” spread from Suiyang to regions such as Henan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangdong during the Northern Song period. The veneration of these spirits diversified, portraying them as deities of loyalty and righteousness, local guardians, and even plague deities(瘟神). In local society, Zhang Xun and his counterparts were sometimes regarded as vengeful spirits(厲鬼), and appeasement rituals to pacify these restless souls became popular to prevent potential disasters. As the cult of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” expanded to regional communities, the historical memory associated with them, while retaining its foundational image as symbols of loyalty shaped by state power and intellectual endorsement, occasionally adapted to local circumstances, resulting in variations in its content. In this way, the memory of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” was forged through the interplay of state power, intellectual discourse, and popular faith, ultimately spreading to regional and external societies over the long term.

영어초록

This study traces the formation and transformation of historical memory associated with “meritorious subjects” in the process of restoring order and rebuilding the state after the An Lushan Rebellion, focusing on the Battle of Suiyang, which involved Zhang Xun (張巡) and Xu Yuan (許遠), later referred to as the “Two Loyal Martyrs” (雙忠). Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan were prominent figures who fiercely resisted An Lushan's rebel forces in the Suiyang(睢陽) region of Henan during the early stages of the rebellion. Suiyang was a strategic stronghold connected to the Jianghuai region, which was emerging as a vital granary at the time. Consequently, the rebels dedicated significant effort to capturing Suiyang, launching all-out assaults with an army of 130,000, including elite cavalry comprised of Sogdians, Tongluo, Turks, and Khitans. Throughout the rebellion, a significant number of major Tang officials and generals defected to the rebels. However, despite being isolated and cut off from government support, Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan defended Suiyang for over ten months. Behind this prolonged resistance lay a darker reality: the majority of soldiers and civilians perished, food supplies were depleted early on, and 20,000 to 30,000 elderly and women were sacrificed as substitutes for military provisions in an act of cannibalism.
As the rebellion was quelled and the provincial military governance system(藩鎮體制)emerged, the Tang court, seeking to restore its authority and secure popular support, initiated widespread pardons and rewards. During this period, Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan became symbols of “loyalty and righteousness” embodying those who willingly sacrificed their lives to protect the state and sovereign. In the reign of Emperor Dezong(德宗), when the policy of reducing military provinces was fully pursued, they were elevated as the foremost meritorious figures of the An Lushan Rebellion. During Emperor Xuanzong(宣宗)'s era, portraits of these loyal subjects, including Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan, were enshrined in the Lingyan Pavilion(凌煙閣), a space dedicated to commemorating those who had made significant contributions to the state.
Following the fall of Suiyang, intellectuals also evaluated Zhang Xun, Xu Yuan, and the Battle of Suiyang. Sharp criticisms arose, including accusations that Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan eventually surrendered, condemnation of their reckless strategies, and ethical objections to the cannibalism of vulnerable individuals. When these discussions escalated into the contentious issue of cannibalism, seven prominent intellectuals of the time defended Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan in unison, emphasizing the strategic importance and significance of the Battle of Suiyang. Li Han(李翰), a leading intellectual and friend of Zhang Xun who had witnessed the battle firsthand, composed The Biography of Zhang Xun of Tang(張中丞傳) and presented it to Emperor Suzong(肅宗). Fifty years after their martyrdom, in 807, Han Yu(韓愈), a figure regarded as marking a turning point in Tang intellectual history, authored The Postscript to the Biography of Zhang Xun of Tang(張中丞傳後序). During the reign of Emperor Xianzong(憲宗), amidst efforts to consolidate the central authority, Han Yu praised the sacrifice of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” as a public act that preserved the realm, safeguarding the Jianghuai granary and providing a financial foundation for the Tang dynasty's resurgence. Amidst the long-term crisis posed by the provincial military system, the memory of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” gradually evolved, as state power and private intellectuals interacted to diminish the negative aspects of their legacy and reframe them as paragons of loyalty and righteousness.
In December 757, Emperor Suzong commemorated the recapture of the capital Chang’an with a general amnesty and rewards for meritorious figures. As part of these celebrations, a shrine was established near Suiyang to honor the martyrdom of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan, where regular rituals were conducted. State-led ceremonies centered on this shrine, known as the “Twin Shrine(雙廟)” and later, local officials established similar shrines during the Song dynasty. The cult of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” spread from Suiyang to regions such as Henan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangdong during the Northern Song period. The veneration of these spirits diversified, portraying them as deities of loyalty and righteousness, local guardians, and even plague deities(瘟神). In local society, Zhang Xun and his counterparts were sometimes regarded as vengeful spirits(厲鬼), and appeasement rituals to pacify these restless souls became popular to prevent potential disasters. As the cult of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” expanded to regional communities, the historical memory associated with them, while retaining its foundational image as symbols of loyalty shaped by state power and intellectual endorsement, occasionally adapted to local circumstances, resulting in variations in its content. In this way, the memory of the “Two Loyal Martyrs” was forged through the interplay of state power, intellectual discourse, and popular faith, ultimately spreading to regional and external societies over the long term.

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